{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T16:46:53Z","timestamp":1774975613758,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,21]],"date-time":"2019-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1558396800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["51778366"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51778366"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Station-free bike sharing systems (BSSs) are a new type of public bike system that has been widely deployed in China since 2017. However, rapid growth has vastly outpaced the immediate demand and overwhelmed many cities around the world. This paper proposes a heuristic bike optimization algorithm (HBOA) to determine the optimal supply and distribution of bikes considering the effect of bicycle cycling. In this approach, the different bike trips with separate bikes can be connected in space and time and converted into a continuous trip chain for a single bike. To improve this cycling efficiency, it is important to properly design the bicycle distribution. Taking Shenzhen as an example, we implement the algorithm with OD matrix data from Mobike and Ofo, the two large bike sharing companies which account for 80% of the shared bike market in Shenzhen, over two days. The HBOA results are as follows. 1) Only one-fifth of the bike supply is needed to meet the current usage demand if the bikes are used efficiently, which means a large number of shared bikes in Shenzhen remain in an idle state for long periods. 2) Although the cycling demand is high in many areas, it does not mean that large numbers of bikes are needed because the continuous inflow caused by the cycling effect of bikes will meet most of the demand by itself. 3) The areas with the highest demands for optimal bikes are residential, followed by industrial, public transportation, official and commercial areas, on both working and non-working days. This algorithm can be an objective basis for city related departments to manage station-free BSSs and be applied to design the layout of bikes in small-scale spatial units to help station-free BSSs operate efficiently and minimize the need to relocate the bikes without reducing the level of user satisfaction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8050239","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,21]],"date-time":"2019-05-21T10:52:51Z","timestamp":1558435971000},"page":"239","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Heuristic Bike Optimization Algorithm to Improve Usage Efficiency of the Station-Free Bike Sharing System in Shenzhen, China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4456-9197","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhihui","family":"Gu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Optimizing Design of Built Environment, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yong","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wanyu","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Taylor, A. (2018, November 28). The Bike-Share Oversupply in China: Huge Piles of Abandoned and Broken Bicycles. Available online: https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/photo\/2018\/03\/bike-share-oversupply-in-china-huge-piles-of-abandoned-and-broken-bicycles\/556268\/."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Sisson, P. (2017, July 19). Free Ride: Is Bike Share\u2019s Next Evolution a System without Stations? Curbed. Available online: https:\/\/www.curbed.com\/2017\/3\/31\/15141002\/cycling-transportation-bike-share-bluegogo-ride."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Li, X.H. (2017, August 10). Ten Ministries and Commissions Established New Rules and Regulations, Can the Barbaric Growth of Sharing Bicycles Be Controlled?. Available online: http:\/\/news.sohu.com."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Xinmin Evening News (2019, May 01). From Barbaric Growth to Total Control, Shared Bike Chaos Improved Significantly. Available online: https:\/\/news.sina.com.cn\/o\/2019-01-11\/doc-ihqhqcis5270576.shtml."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Institute for Transportation & Development Policy (2013). The Bike Sharing Planning Guide, Institute for Transportation and Development Policy."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"European Bicycle Manufactures Association (2017, September 29). Bike Sharing in China. Available online: http:\/\/ebma-brussels.eu\/bike-sharing-in-china\/."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"European Bicycle Manufactures Association (2017, September 29). Bike Sharing in Europe. Available online: http:\/\/ebma-brussels.eu\/bike-sharing-in-europe\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Froehlich, J., Neumann, J., and Oliver, N. (2008, January 4). Measuring the pulse of the city through shared bicycle programs. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Urban, Community, and Social Applications of Networked Sensing Systems, UrbanSense08, Raleigh, NC, USA."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2011.08.058","article-title":"Understanding bike-sharing systems using data mining: Exploring activity patterns","volume":"20","author":"Vogel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1080\/12265934.2014.957715","article-title":"Relationships between neighbourhood environments and residents\u2019 bicycle mode choice: A case study of Seoul","volume":"18","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Urban Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2014.10.004","article-title":"Land use effects on bicycle ridership: A framework for state planning agencies","volume":"41","author":"Cui","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Saharidis, G.K.D., Fragkogios, A., and Zygouri, E. (2014, January 12\u201314). A multi-periodic optimization modeling approach for the establishment of a bike sharing network: A case study of the City of Athens. Proceedings of the International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists, Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1002\/atr.1311","article-title":"A model for the layout of bike stations in public bike-sharing systems","volume":"49","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Adv. Transp."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2014.09.003","article-title":"Spatio-temporal patterns of a Public Bicycle Sharing Program: The effect of weather and calendar events","volume":"41","author":"Corcoran","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apm.2011.12.032","article-title":"A multi-periodic optimization formulation for bike planning and bike utilization","volume":"36","author":"Sayarshad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Math. Model."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2012.09.769","article-title":"An optimisation algorithm to establish the location of stations of a mixed fleet biking system: An application to the city of Lisbon","volume":"54","author":"Martinez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2015.09.014","article-title":"Bike-sharing stations: A maximal covering location approach","volume":"82","author":"Frade","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Caggiani, L., Camporeale, R., Marinelli, M., and Ottomanelli, M. (2017). User satisfaction based model for resource allocation in bike-sharing systems. Transp. Policy, 1\u201310."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.3141\/2143-15","article-title":"Defining a primary market and estimating demand for major bicycle-sharing program in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania","volume":"2143","author":"Krykewycz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tre.2010.09.004","article-title":"Strategic design of public bicycle sharing systems with service level constraints","volume":"47","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part E Logist. Transp. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2012.07.002","article-title":"Optimizing the location of stations in bike-sharing programs: A GIS approach","volume":"35","author":"Latorre","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cie.2011.12.006","article-title":"A hub location inventory model for bicycle sharing system design: Formulation and solution","volume":"65","author":"Lin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Ind. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Rei, S. (2017, September 20). Demand Modeling and Relocation Strategies for Free-Floating Bike Sharing Systems. Available online: https:\/\/athene-forschung.unibw.de\/doc\/121232\/121232.pdf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2014.06.008","article-title":"Ridership and effectiveness of bike sharing: The effects of urban features and system characteristics on daily use and turnover rate of public bikes in China","volume":"35","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s11116-015-9669-z","article-title":"Effects of built environment and weather on bike sharing demand: A station level analysis of commercial bike sharing in Toronto","volume":"44","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transportation"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, X. (2015). Understanding spatiotemporal patterns of biking behavior by analyzing massive bike sharing data in Chicago. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0137922"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2016.06.008","article-title":"Incorporating the impact of spatio-temporal interactions on bicycle sharing system demand: A case study of new york citibike system","volume":"54","author":"Eluru","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2017.12.146","article-title":"A dynamic clustering method for relocation process in free-floating vehicle sharing systems Leonardo","volume":"27","author":"Caggiani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2017.06.028","article-title":"The static bike relocation problem with multiple vehicles and visits","volume":"264","author":"Subramanian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2018.06.051","article-title":"Dynamic repositioning strategy in a bike-sharing system; how to prioritize and how to rebalance a bike station","volume":"272","author":"Legros","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Sun, L., Chen, W., and Xiong, H. (2016, January 13\u201317). Rebalancing Bike Sharing Systems: A Multi-source Data Smart Optimization. Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2939672.2939776"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2017.03.016","article-title":"Free-floating bike sharing: Solving real-life large-scale static rebalancing problems","volume":"80","author":"Pal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2018.01.001","article-title":"A modeling framework for the dynamic management of free-floating bike-sharing systems","volume":"87","author":"Caggiani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reiss, S., and Bogenberger, K. (2015, January 15\u201318). GPS-Data Analysis of Munich\u2019s Free-Floating Bike Sharing System and Application of an Operator-based Relocation Strategy. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 18th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Las Palmas, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2015.102"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2018.07.013","article-title":"The station-free shared bike demand forecasting with a deep learning approach and large-scale datasets","volume":"95","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Qu, Q., Chen, M.-H., Fang, S., and Cheng, Y. (2018). The sustainable existence of China\u2019s bicycle-sharing market: to oversupply or to disappear. Sustanability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10114214"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0095-1","article-title":"Addressing the minimum fleet problem in on-demand urban mobility","volume":"557","author":"Vazifeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2018, December 29). Shenzhen Statistical Yearbook 2018, Available online: http:\/\/tjj.sz.gov.cn\/xxgk\/zfxxgkml\/tjsj\/tjnj\/201812\/P020181229639722485550.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2017, September 20). Shenzhen Internet Rental Bicycle Standard Management Rectification Action Implementation Plan Introduced, Available online: http:\/\/jtys.sz.gov.cn\/jtzx\/wycx\/dccx\/cxtx\/201709\/t20170920_8767870.htm."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"26","article-title":"Passenger transportation in multi-center city Shenzhen","volume":"2","author":"Qi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Urban Transp. China"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Mobike Global (2017, May 19). Bike-Sharing and the City 2017 White Paper. Available online: https:\/\/mobike.com\/global\/public\/Mobike%20-%20White%20Paper%202017_EN.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"99","article-title":"Spatial Match of Jobs-housing and the Rail Transit\u2019s Role in Commuting Metropolis: A Case Study of Shenzhen","volume":"1","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Urban Plan. Forum"}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/8\/5\/239\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:53:56Z","timestamp":1760187236000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/8\/5\/239"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,21]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi8050239"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi8050239","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,21]]}}}