{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T21:33:38Z","timestamp":1777412018189,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,30]],"date-time":"2019-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1567123200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traces collected by citizens using GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) devices during sports activities such as running, hiking or biking are now widely available through different sport-oriented collaborative websites. The traces are collected by citizens for their own purposes and frequently shared with the sports community on the internet. Our research assumption is that crowdsourced GNSS traces may be a valuable source of information to detect updates in authoritative datasets. Despite their availability, the traces present some issues such as poor metadata, attribute incompleteness and heterogeneous positional accuracy. Moreover, certain parts of the traces (GNSS points composing the traces) are results of the displacements made out of the existing paths. In our context (i.e., update authoritative data) these off path GNSS points are considered as noise and should be filtered. Two types of noise are examined in this research: Points representing secondary activities (e.g., having a lunch break) and points representing errors during the acquisition. The first ones we named secondary human behaviour (SHB), whereas we named the second ones outliers. The goal of this paper is to improve the smoothness of traces by detecting and filtering both SHB and outliers. Two methods are proposed. The first one allows for the detection secondary human behaviour by analysing only traces geometry. The second one is a rule-based machine learning method that detects outliers by taking into account the intrinsic characteristics of points composing the traces, as well as the environmental conditions during traces acquisition. The proposed approaches are tested on crowdsourced GNSS traces collected in mountain areas during sports activities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8090380","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,30]],"date-time":"2019-08-30T10:31:17Z","timestamp":1567161077000},"page":"380","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["A Filtering-Based Approach for Improving Crowdsourced GNSS Traces in a Data Update Context"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Stefan S.","family":"Ivanovic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Univ. Paris-Est, LASTIG, MEIG, IGN, ENSG, F-94160 Saint-Mand\u00e9, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1101-1333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana-Maria","family":"Olteanu-Raimond","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Univ. Paris-Est, LASTIG, MEIG, IGN, ENSG, F-94160 Saint-Mand\u00e9, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"S\u00e9bastien","family":"Musti\u00e8re","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Univ. Paris-Est, LASTIG, MEIG, IGN, ENSG, F-94160 Saint-Mand\u00e9, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Devogele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 de Tours, Laboratoire D'informatique LIFAT, 41000 Tours, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Bruns, A. (2008). Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond: From Production to Produsage, Peter Lang."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"See, L., Mooney, P., Foody, G., Bastin, L., Comber, A., Estima, J., Fritz, S., Kerle, N., Jiang, B., and Laakso, M. (2016). Crowdsourcing, Citizen Science or Volunteered Geographic Information? The Current State of Crowdsourced Geographic Information. ISPRS Int. J. Geo Inf., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5050055"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Turner, A. (2006). Introduction to Neogeography, O\u2019Reilly Media."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1068\/b35097","article-title":"How good is volunteered geographical information? A comparative study of OpenStreetMap and Ordnance Survey datasets","volume":"37","author":"Haklay","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Antoniou, V., Morley, J., and Haklay, M. (2009, January 1\u20133). The Role of User Generated Spatial Content in Mapping Agencies. Proceedings of the GISRUK Conference, Durham, UK."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1177\/0165551512437638","article-title":"Towards an integrated crowdsourcing definition","volume":"38","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Spink, A., Cresswell, B., Koelzsch, A., Langevelde, F., Neefjes, M., Noldus, L., Oeveren, H., Prins, H., van der Wal, T., and de Weerd, N. (2013, January 10\u201312). Animal Behaviour Analysis with GPS and 3D Accelerometers. Proceedings of the 6th European Conference on Precision Livestock Farming, Leuven, Belgium."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198119835515","article-title":"Decision Tree Approach to Predicting Vehicle Stopping from GPS Tracks in a National Park Scenic Corridor","volume":"2673","author":"Fuentes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"11","article-title":"GPS-based measurements of backcountry visitors in parks and protected areas: Examples of methods and applications from three case studies","volume":"28","author":"Monz","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Park Recreat. Admi."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Bauer, C. (, January 25\u201328). On the Accuracy of GPS Measures of Smartphones: A Study of Running Tracking Applications. Proceedings of the ACM International Conference Proceeding, Niagara, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mooney, P., Minghini, M., Laakso, M., Antoniou, V., Olteanu-Raimond, A.-M., and Skopeliti, A. (2016). Towards a Protocol for the Collection of VGI Vector Data. ISPRS Int. J. Geo Inf., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5110217"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-12-14","article-title":"Detecting activity locations from raw GPS data: A novel kernel-based algorithm","volume":"12","author":"Thierry","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Ester, M., peter Kriegel, H., Sander, J., and Xu, X. (1996). A Density-Based Algorithm for Discovering Clusters in Large Spatial Databases with Noise, AAAI Press."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Buard, E. (2013). Dynamiques des Interactions Esp\u00e8ces Espace, Mise en Relation des Pratiques de D\u00e9placement des Populations D\u2019herbivores et de L\u2019\u00e9volution de L\u2019occupation du Sol Dans le Parc de Hwange, Universit\u00e9 Paris. (In Zimbabwe)."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alvares, L.O., Bogorny, V., Kuijpers, B., De Macedo, J.A.F., Moelans, B., and Vaisman, A. (2007, January 7\u20139). A Model for Enriching Trajectories with Semantic Geographical Information. Proceedings of the 15th Annual ACM International Symposium, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1341012.1341041"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"275","article-title":"Finding Stops in Error-Prone Trajectories of Moving Objects with Time-Based Clustering","volume":"Volume 53","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Creativity in Intelligent Technologies and Data Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rocha, J.A.M.R., Times, V.C., Oliveira, G., Alvares, L.O., and Bogorny, V. (2010, January 7\u20139). DB-SMoT: A Direction-Based Spatio-Temporal Clustering Method. Proceedings of the 2010 5th IEEE International Conference Intelligent Systems, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/IS.2010.5548396"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.3166\/rig.22.413-437","article-title":"Le Paris des visiteurs \u00e9trangers, qu\u2019en disent les t\u00e9l\u00e9phones mobiles ? Inf\u00e9rence des pratiques spatiales et fr\u00e9quentations des sites touristiques en \u00cele-de-France","volume":"22","author":"Smoreda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Int. G\u00e9omatique"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palma, A.T., Bogorny, V., Kuijpers, B., and Alvares, L.O. (2008, January 16\u201320). A Clustering-Based Approach for Discovering Interesting Places in Trajectories. Proceedings of the 2008 ACM Symposium, Fortaleza, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1145\/1363686.1363886"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"60","article-title":"A Hybrid Model and Computing Platform for Spatio-Semantic Trajectories","volume":"Volume 6088","author":"Yan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Information Security Applications"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463309990142","article-title":"A Comparison of Outlier Detection Procedures and Robust Estimation Methods in GPS Positioning","volume":"62","author":"Knight","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcm.2010.11.077","article-title":"Analysis of the influence of forest environments on the accuracy of GPS measurements by using genetic algorithms","volume":"54","author":"Torres","year":"2011","journal-title":"Math. Comput. Model."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duran, A., and Earleywine, M. (2012). GPS Data Filtration Method for Drive Cycle Analysis Applications. SAE Tech. Paper Ser., 4\u20135.","DOI":"10.4271\/2012-01-0743"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Eliasson, M. (2014). A Kalman Filter Approach to Reduce Position Error for Pedestrian Applications in Areas of Bad GPS Reception, Universitet Umea."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15307","DOI":"10.3390\/s131115307","article-title":"A Kalman Filter Implementation for Precision Improvement in Low-Cost GPS Positioning of Tractors","volume":"13","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Gil, P., Ariza-Lopez, F., and Mozas, A. (2015, January 9\u201312). Detection of Outliers in Sets of Gnss Tracks from Volunteered Geographic Information. Proceedings of the 18th AGILE International Conference on Geographic Information Science, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2015.1081205","article-title":"Trajectory Box Plot: A new pattern to summarize movements","volume":"30","author":"Etienne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spasta.2012.03.002","article-title":"Assuring the Quality of Volunteered Geographic Information","volume":"1","author":"Goodchild","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spat. Stat."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12073","article-title":"A Comprehensive Framework for Intrinsic OpenStreetMap Quality Analysis","volume":"18","author":"Barron","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"van Exel, M.V., Dias, E., and Fruijtier, S. (2011). The impact of Crowdsourcing on Spatial Data Quality Indicators. Proc. GiSci."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"37","article-title":"Using control data to determine the reliability of volunteered geographic information about land cover","volume":"23","author":"Comber","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jolivet, L., and Olteanu-Raimond, A.M. (2017). Crowd and Community Sourced Data Quality Assessment. Lect. Notes Geoinf. Cartogr., 47\u201360.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-57336-6_4"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s10708-008-9188-y","article-title":"The credibility of volunteered geographic information","volume":"72","author":"Flanagin","year":"2008","journal-title":"GeoJournal"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"ISO (2013). ISO 19157:2013, Geographic Information\u2014Data Quality, ISO."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Arsanjani, J.J., Zipf, A., Mooney, P., and Helbich, M. (2015). OpenStreetMap in GIScience: Experiences, Research, and Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-II-3-W5-345-2015","article-title":"Measures and Indicators of Vgi Quality: An Overview","volume":"II-3\/W5","author":"Antoniou","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9671.2010.01203.x","article-title":"Quality Assessment of the French OpenStreetMap Dataset","volume":"14","author":"Touya","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Touya, G., Antoniou, V., Olteanu-Raimond, A.-M., and Van Damme, M.-D. (2017). Assessing Crowdsourced POI Quality: Combining Methods Based on Reference Data, History, and Spatial Relations. ISPRS Int. J. Geo Inf., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6030080"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Kaplan, E.D., and Hegarty, C. (2006). Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications, Artech House. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crvi.2004.07.014","article-title":"Performance of differential GPS collars in temperate mountain forest","volume":"327","author":"Janeau","year":"2004","journal-title":"Comptes Rendus Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.2193\/0091-7648(2005)33[935:EOFCOG]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Effect of forest canopy on GPS-based movement data","volume":"33","author":"DeCesare","year":"2005","journal-title":"Wildl. Soc. Bull."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2007.01286.x","article-title":"Effects of habitat on GPS collar performance: Using data screening to reduce location error","volume":"44","author":"Lewis","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1007\/s11284-007-0412-x","article-title":"Effects of habitat feature, antenna position, movement, and fix interval on GPS radio collar performance in Mount Fuji, central Japan","volume":"23","author":"Jiang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"350","article-title":"Sensing and Classifying Impairments of GPS Reception on Mobile Devices","volume":"Volume 6696","author":"Blunck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Computer Vision\u2013ECCV 2012"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi4031246","article-title":"A Progressive Buffering Method for Road Map Update Using OpenStreetMap Data","volume":"4","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. J. Geo Inf."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.2193\/2007-175","article-title":"Grizzly Bear Behaviour and Global Positioning System Collar Fix Rates","volume":"72","author":"Heard","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Manage."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.17221\/32\/2009-JFS","article-title":"Analysis of the accuracy of GPS Trimble JUNO ST measurement in the conditions of forest canopy","volume":"56","author":"Klimanek","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.17221\/11900-JFS","article-title":"Forest canopy influence on the precision of location with GPS receivers","volume":"48","author":"Tucek","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.2193\/0091-7648(2005)33[926:IOTAGF]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Influence of topography and GPS fix interval on GPS collar performance","volume":"33","author":"Cain","year":"2005","journal-title":"Wildl. Soc. Bull."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Ivanovic, S., Olteanu Raimond, A.M., Mustiere, S., and Devogele, T. (2016, January 5\u20138). Detection of Outliers in Crowdsourced GPS Traces. Proceedings of the Spatial Accuracy 2016 Symposium, Montpellier, France."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12186","article-title":"Automatic Update of Road Attributes by Mining GPS Tracks","volume":"20","author":"Biljecki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Heselton, R.R., Carstensen, L.W., Campbell, J.B., and Oderwald, R. (1998). Elevation Effects on GPS Positional Accuracy. Master Sci. Geogr., 22."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"1","article-title":"Performance Study on Rule-based Classification Techniques across Multiple Database Relations","volume":"5","author":"Thangaraj","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Medad, A., Gaio, M., Mustiere, S., and Mustiere@ensg, S. (2018, January 6\u20139). Appariement Automatique de Donn\u00e9es H\u00e9t\u00e9rog\u00e8nes: Textes, Traces GPS et Ressources G\u00e9ographiques. Proceedings of the 14th Spatial Analysis and Geomatics Conference, Montpellier, France."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ncon.2016.07.002","article-title":"Evaluation of Global Positioning System telemetry collar performance in the tropical Andes of southern Ecuador","volume":"14","author":"Camp","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007452223027","article-title":"Machine Learning for the Detection of Oil Spills in Satellite Radar Images","volume":"30","author":"Kubat","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Cohen, W.W., and Hirsh, H. (1994). Reducing Misclassification Costs. Machine Learning Proceedings 1994, Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Japkowicz, N. (2000). Learning from Imbalanced Data Sets: A Comparison of Various Strategies, AAAI."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1145\/1007730.1007735","article-title":"A Study of the Behaviour of Several Methods for Balancing Machine Learning Training Data","volume":"6","author":"Batista","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sigkdd Explor. Newsl."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/8\/9\/380\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:15:13Z","timestamp":1760188513000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/8\/9\/380"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,30]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi8090380"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi8090380","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,30]]}}}