{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T13:57:24Z","timestamp":1780667844934,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":116,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,20]],"date-time":"2019-12-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576800000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Geospatial information is gaining immense interest and importance as we enter the era of highly developed transportation and communication. Despite the proliferation of cellular network and WiFi, on some occasions, users still face barriers to accessing geospatial data. In this paper, we design and implement a distributed prototype system with a delay\/disruption tolerant network (DTN), named Geo-DMP, for cooperatively and opportunistically sharing and exchanging named geospatial contents in a device-to-device fashion. First of all, we construct a lightweight \u201ccontent agent\u201d module to bridge the gap between the application layer and the underlying DTN protocol stack. Afterwards, to profile the mobility history of users in practical geospatial environments, we present a map segmentation scheme based on road network and administrative subdivision information. Subsequently, we associate the regional movement history information with the content retrieval process to devise a hierarchical and region-oriented DTN routing scheme for both requests and responses. Finally, we conduct extensive experiments with real-world trajectories and complete implementations on the emulation platform composed of virtual machines. The experiments corroborate that Geo-DMP has the capability of successfully retrieving geospatial contents for users for most of the time under mobile circumstances with episodic connectivity. Moreover, en-route caches can be efficiently exploited to provision contents from multiple sources with less network resource consumption and shorter user-perceived latencies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9010008","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,20]],"date-time":"2019-12-20T09:50:33Z","timestamp":1576835433000},"page":"8","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Geo-DMP: A DTN-Based Mobile Prototype for Geospatial Data Retrieval"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Chao","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huimei","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1092-2183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yong","family":"Xiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2019, May 15). ICT Facts and Figures 2017, International Telecommunication Union. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/en\/ITU-D\/Statistics\/Pages\/facts\/default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2010.07.002","article-title":"The role of ICTs in everyday mobile lives","volume":"19","author":"Line","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1080\/17489725.2018.1508763","article-title":"Location based services: Ongoing evolution and research agenda","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Locat. Based Serv."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1080\/01441640601089988","article-title":"Urban Transport Trends and Policies in China and India: Impacts of Rapid Economic Growth","volume":"27","author":"Pucher","year":"2007","journal-title":"Transp. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2011.11.006","article-title":"Global urbanization research from 1991 to 2009: A systematic research review","volume":"104","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"See, L., Mooney, P., Foody, G., Bastin, L., Comber, A., Estima, J., Fritz, S., Kerle, N., Jiang, B., and Laakso, M. (2016). Crowdsourcing, Citizen Science or Volunteered Geographic Information? The Current State of Crowdsourced Geographic Information. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5050055"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1068\/a44483","article-title":"Neogeography and Volunteered Geographic Information: A Conversation with Michael Goodchild and Andrew Turner","volume":"45","author":"Wilson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. A Econ. Space"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2012.743664","article-title":"How much information is geospatially referenced? Networks and cognition","volume":"27","author":"Hahmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2013.09.012","article-title":"Accidental, open and everywhere: Emerging data sources for the understanding of cities","volume":"49","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2851","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2017.2650215","article-title":"A Participatory Urban Traffic Monitoring System: The Power of Bus Riders","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1108\/JCHMSD-09-2017-0064","article-title":"Rock art CARE: A cross-platform mobile application for crowdsourcing heritage conservation data for the safeguarding of open-air rock art","volume":"8","author":"Turner","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit. Manag. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3185","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4210","article-title":"Crowdsourcing for climate and atmospheric sciences: Current status and future potential","volume":"35","author":"Muller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1515\/noise-2018-0001","article-title":"Citizens as smart, active sensors for a quiet and just city. The case of the \u201copen source soundscapes\u201d approach to identify, assess and plan \u201ceveryday quiet areas\u201d in cities","volume":"5","author":"Radicchi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Noise Mapp."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"437","article-title":"Network Disaster Response Effectiveness: The Case of ICTs and Hurricane Katrina","volume":"12","author":"Davis","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Homel. Secur. Emerg. Manag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2014.49","article-title":"Communication Problems After the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011","volume":"8","author":"Yamamura","year":"2014","journal-title":"Disaster Med. Public Health Prep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castagno, P., Mancuso, V., Sereno, M., and Marsan, M.A. (2017, January 12\u201315). Why your smartphone doesn\u2019t work in very crowded environments. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 18th International Symposium on A World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks (WoWMoM), Macau, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/WoWMoM.2017.7974296"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shafiq, M.Z., Ji, L., Liu, A.X., Pang, J., Venkataraman, S., and Wang, J. (2013, January 17\u201321). A First Look at Cellular Network Performance During Crowded Events. Proceedings of the ACM SIGMETRICS\/International Conference on Measurement and Modeling of Computer Systems (SIGMETRICS \u201913), Pittsburgh, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2465529.2465754"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2019, May 15). Monthly Earnings. CEIC. Available online: https:\/\/www.ceicdata.com\/en\/indicator\/monthly-earnings."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2019, May 15). Worldwide Mobile Data Pricing: The Cost of 1GB of Mobile Data in 230 Countries. Available online: https:\/\/www.cable.co.uk\/mobiles\/worldwide-data-pricing\/."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Ding, J., Li, Y., Zhang, P., and Jin, D. (2017). Time Dependent Pricing for Large-scale Mobile Networks of Urban Environment: Feasibility and Adaptability. IEEE Trans. Serv. Comput."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahadevan, L., and Kaleta, J.P. (2018). Free Wi-Fi: To Buy or Not to Buy. J. Comput. Inf. Syst.","DOI":"10.1080\/08874417.2018.1490157"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600262","article-title":"WiFi Networks in Metropolises: From Access Point and User Perspectives","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berezin, M.E., Rousseau, F., and Duda, A. (2012, January 10). Citywide Mobile Internet Access Using Dense Urban WiFi Coverage. Proceedings of the First Workshop on Urban Networking (UrbaNe \u201912), Nice, France.","DOI":"10.1145\/2413236.2413244"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ha, S., Sen, S., Joe-Wong, C., Im, Y., and Chiang, M. (2012, January 13\u201317). TUBE: Time-dependent Pricing for Mobile Data. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM 2012 Conference on Applications, Technologies, Architectures, and Protocols for Computer Communication (SIGCOMM \u201912), Helsinki, Finland.","DOI":"10.1145\/2342356.2342402"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2016.2590320","article-title":"Performance Modeling, Analysis, and Optimization of Delayed Mobile Data Offloading for Mobile Users","volume":"25","author":"Mehmeti","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans. Netw."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2016.11.002","article-title":"A survey on device-to-device (D2D) communication: Architecture and security issues","volume":"78","author":"Gandotra","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2011.041911.00093","article-title":"Disruption-Tolerant Networking: A Comprehensive Survey on Recent Developments and Persisting Challenges","volume":"14","author":"Khabbaz","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1007\/s00779-011-0433-x","article-title":"Mobile exploration of geotagged photographs","volume":"16","author":"Rost","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pers. Ubiquitous Comput."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gorbil, G. (2015, January 23\u201327). No way out: Emergency evacuation with no internet access. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communication Workshops (PerCom Workshops), St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PERCOMW.2015.7134089"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gokulakrishnan, P., and Ganeshkumar, P. (2015). Road Accident Prevention with Instant Emergency Warning Message Dissemination in Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0143383"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2907","DOI":"10.1002\/wcm.2729","article-title":"V2V protocols for traffic congestion discovery along routes of interest in VANETs: A quantitative study","volume":"16","author":"Martuscelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"5186495","article-title":"Bringing Geospatial Data Closer to Mobile Users: A Caching Approach Based on Vector Tiles for Wireless Multihop Scenarios","volume":"2018","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mob. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basagni, S., Conti, M., Giordano, S., and Stojmenovic, I. (2013). Applications in Delay-Tolerant and Opportunistic Networks. Mobile Ad Hoc Networking: Cutting Edge Directions, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118511305"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popa, L., Ghodsi, A., and Stoica, I. (2010, January 20\u201321). HTTP As the Narrow Waist of the Future Internet. Proceedings of the 9th ACM SIGCOMM Workshop on Hot Topics in Networks, Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1868447.1868453"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Ott, J., and Kutscher, D. (2006, January 7\u20139). Bundling the Web: HTTP over DTN. Proceedings of the Workshop on Networking in Public Transport (WNEPT) in conjunction with QShine 2006, Waterloo, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2015.08.017","article-title":"Dynamic framework for building highly-localized mobile web DTN applications","volume":"73","author":"Sankaran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pitk\u00e4nen, M., K\u00e4rkk\u00e4inen, T., and Ott, J. (April, January 29). Opportunistic web access via WLAN hotspots. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications (PerCom), Mannheim, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/PERCOM.2010.5466997"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagy, M., K\u00e4rkk\u00e4inen, T., and Ott, J. (2014, January 7). Enhancing Opportunistic Networks with Legacy Nodes. Proceedings of the 9th ACM MobiCom Workshop on Challenged Networks (CHANTS \u201914), Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2645672.2645681"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2016.05.026","article-title":"A middleware for opportunistic content distribution","volume":"107","author":"Helgason","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Zhuang, H., Ntareme, H., Ou, Z., and Pehrson, B. (2012, January 15). A Service Adaptation Middleware for Delay Tolerant Network based on HTTP Simple Queue Service. Proceedings of the 6th USENIX\/ACM Workshop on Networked Systems for Developing Regions (NSDR \u201912), Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srinivasan, V., and Julien, C. (2014, January 14\u201318). MadApp: A Middleware for Opportunistic Data in Mobile Web Applications. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE 15th International Conference on Mobile Data Management, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/MDM.2014.27"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2019, March 31). Surging High-Speed Internet Access, More Devices and More Content Combine to Drive Media Consumption Upwards. PricewaterhouseCoopers. Available online: https:\/\/www.pwc.com\/gx\/en\/entertainment-media\/publications\/assets\/internet-access-outlook-article-december-2016.pdf."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2019, March 31). Ericsson Mobility Report. Ericsson. Available online: https:\/\/www.ericsson.com\/assets\/local\/mobility-report\/documents\/2018\/ericsson-mobility-report-june-2018.pdf."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1002\/asi.23561","article-title":"URL decay at year 20: A research note","volume":"67","author":"Oguz","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, S.M., de Sompel, H.V., Shankar, H., Klein, M., Tobin, R., and Grover, C. (2016). Scholarly Context Adrift: Three out of Four URI References Lead to Changed Content. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0167475"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2013.052213.00186","article-title":"On Protocol-Independent Data Redundancy Elimination","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2012.6384447","article-title":"Economic incentives in information-centric networking: Implications for protocol design and public policy","volume":"50","author":"Agyapong","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choffnes, D.R., and Bustamante, F.E. (2008, January 17\u201322). Taming the Torrent: A Practical Approach to Reducing Cross-isp Traffic in Peer-to-peer Systems. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM 2008 Conference on Data Communication (SIGCOMM \u201908), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1402958.1403000"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2016.12.026","article-title":"Information-Centric Networking in next-generation communications scenarios","volume":"80","author":"Morelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1700325","article-title":"Connecting the Edges: A Universal, Mobile-Centric, and Opportunistic Communications Architecture","volume":"56","author":"Sarros","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2016.03.006","article-title":"Information-centric content retrieval for delay-tolerant networks","volume":"107","author":"Anastasiades","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23858","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2765379","article-title":"Boosting the Performance of Content Centric Networking Using Delay Tolerant Networking Mechanisms","volume":"5","author":"Islam","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1145\/2875951.2875959","article-title":"Towards an information centric network architecture for universal internet access","volume":"46","author":"Trossen","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM SIGCOMM Comput. Commun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Farrell, S., Lindgren, A., Lynch, A., and Kutscher, D. (2019, June 20). Bundle Protocol Query Extension Block. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/pdf\/draft-irtf-dtnrg-bpq-00.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Pentikousis, K., Ohlman, B., Corujo, D., Boggia, G., Tyson, G., Davies, E., Molinaro, A., and Eum, S. (2019, June 20). Information-Centric Networking: Baseline Scenarios. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/pdf\/rfc7476.pdf."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurnikov, A., K\u00e4rkk\u00e4inen, T., and Ott, J. (2013, January 30). Data to the People. Proceedings of the 8th ACM MobiCom Workshop on Challenged Networks (CHANTS \u201913), Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2505494.2505505"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tyson, G., Bigham, J., and Bodanese, E. (2013, January 14\u201319). Towards an information-centric delay-tolerant network. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS), Turin, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2013.6970723"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez-S\u00e1nchez, S., Cabero, J.M., and Urteaga, I. (2015, January 25\u201327). DTN Routing Optimised by Human Routines: The HURRy Protocol. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference (WWIC 2015) on Wired\/Wireless Internet Communications, Malaga, Spain.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-22572-2_22"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Islam, H.M., Lukyanenko, A., Tarkoma, S., and Yla-Jaaski, A. (2015, January 6\u20139). Towards disruption tolerant ICN. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communication (ISCC), Larnaca, Cyprus.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCC.2015.7884893"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1145\/2656877.2656887","article-title":"Named Data Networking","volume":"44","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACM SIGCOMM Comput. Commun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petz, A., Lindgren, A., Hui, P., and Julien, C. (2012, January 22\u201326). MADServer: A Server Architecture for Mobile Advanced Delivery. Proceedings of the Seventh ACM International Workshop on Challenged Networks (CHANTS \u201912), Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1145\/2348616.2348621"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2014.1128","article-title":"Coupling human mobility and social ties","volume":"12","author":"Toole","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2016.04.005","article-title":"On the regularity of human mobility","volume":"33","author":"Oliveira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2013.042313.00103","article-title":"A Survey of Social-Aware Routing Protocols in Delay Tolerant Networks: Applications, Taxonomy and Design-Related Issues","volume":"16","author":"Wei","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Survey on Geographic Routing Protocols in Delay\/Disruption Tolerant Networks","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2011.2104378","article-title":"A Storage-Friendly Routing Scheme in Intermittently Connected Mobile Network","volume":"60","author":"Wen","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamada, A., and Ishihara, S. (2017, January 27\u201329). Data Exchange Strategies for Aggregating Geographical Distribution of Demands for Location-Dependent Information Using Soft-State Sketches in VANETs. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 31st International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications (AINA), Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/AINA.2017.42"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/1550147717718105","article-title":"DRANS: Daily Routine Analysis for Node Searching in delay tolerant networks","volume":"13","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Furutani, T., Kawamoto, Y., Nishiyama, H., and Kato, N. (2019). Proposal and Performance Evaluation of Information Diffusion Technique with Novel Virtual-Cell-Based Wi-Fi Direct. IEEE Trans. Emerg. Top. Comput.","DOI":"10.1109\/WPMC.2018.8713089"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2018.09.010","article-title":"Greedyflow: Distributed greedy packet routing between landmarks in DTNs","volume":"83","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, C.S., Baccelli, F., and de Veciana, G. (2018, January 26\u201329). Densification Leveraging Mobility: An IoT Architecture Based on Mesh Networking and Vehicles. Proceedings of the Eighteenth ACM International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing (Mobihoc \u201918), Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3209582.3209590"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6715","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2015.2476504","article-title":"GeoMobCon: A Mobility-Contact-Aware Geocast Scheme for Urban VANETs","volume":"65","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.is.2016.09.006","article-title":"Partitioning road networks using density peak graphs: Efficiency vs. accuracy","volume":"64","author":"Anwar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1007\/s11806-009-0012-8","article-title":"Road density analysis based on skeleton partitioning for road generalization","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geo-Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Lai, C., Wang, L., Chen, J., Meng, X., and Zeitouni, K. (2007, January 16\u201318). Effective Density Queries for Moving Objects in Road Networks. Proceedings of the Joint 9th Asia-Pacific Web Conference (APWeb 2007) and 8th International Conference, on Web-Age Information Management (WAIM 2007), Huang Shan, China."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2016.08.013","article-title":"Constructing human activity spaces: A new approach incorporating complex urban activity-travel","volume":"56","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1002\/jcop.20354","article-title":"Conceptualization and measurement of the neighborhood in rural settings: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"38","author":"Marco","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Community Psychol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socnet.2011.05.002","article-title":"Measuring \u2018neighborhood\u2019: Constructing network neighborhoods","volume":"34","author":"Hipp","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soc. Netw."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s11113-015-9359-8","article-title":"Evaluating Linearly Interpolated Intercensal Estimates of Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics of U.S. Counties and Census Tracts 2001\u20132009","volume":"34","author":"Weden","year":"2015","journal-title":"Popul. Res. Policy Rev."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2016.01.003","article-title":"A zip code study of socioeconomic, demographic, and household gendered influence on the residential energy sector","volume":"2","author":"Elnakat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1080\/15230406.2014.972456","article-title":"UK open source crime data: Accuracy and possibilities for research","volume":"42","author":"Tompson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cartogr. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwf068","article-title":"Geocoding and Monitoring of US Socioeconomic Inequalities in Mortality and Cancer Incidence: Does the Choice of Area-based Measure and Geographic Level Matter?: The Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project","volume":"156","author":"Krieger","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwj234","article-title":"ZIP-Code-based versus Tract-based Income Measures as Long-Term Risk-adjusted Mortality Predictors","volume":"164","author":"Thomas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2016.02.007","article-title":"Spatial representations and policy implications of industrial co-agglomerations, a case study of Beijing","volume":"55","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Zhou, Z., Zhao, Y., Zhang, X., Xing, K., Xiao, F., Yang, Z., and Liu, Y. (2019). Improving Urban Crowd Flow Prediction on Flexible Region Partition. IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput.","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2019.2934461"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2019.1599895","article-title":"Deep spatio-temporal residual neural networks for road-network-based data modeling","volume":"33","author":"Ren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1007\/s10940-016-9321-x","article-title":"Predictive Crime Mapping: Arbitrary Grids or Street Networks?","volume":"33","author":"Rosser","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Quant. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2018.05.014","article-title":"Efficient Geocasting in Opportunistic Networks","volume":"127","author":"Rajaei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, S., and Liu, Y. (2014, January 6\u20139). Geoopp: Geocasting for opportunistic networks. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2014.6952815"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2014.2345405","article-title":"Discovering Urban Functional Zones Using Latent Activity Trajectories","volume":"27","author":"Yuan","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Gonzalez, H., Han, J., Li, X., Myslinska, M., and Sondag, J.P. (2007, January 23\u201327). Adaptive Fastest Path Computation on a Road Network: A Traffic Mining Approach. Proceedings of the 33rd International Conference on Very Large Data Bases (VLDB \u201907), Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"(2018, September 15). Anyproxy\u2014A Fully Configurable http\/https Proxy in NodeJS. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/alibaba\/anyproxy."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"(2018, September 15). DTN2\u2014DTN Reference Implementation. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/delay-tolerant-networking."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Cerf, V., Burleigh, S., Durst, R., Fall, K., Hooke, A., Scott, K., Torgerson, L., and Weiss, H. (2019, May 06). Delay-Tolerant Networking Architecture. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc4838."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Scott, K., and Burleigh, S. (2019, May 06). Bundle Protocol Specification. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc5050."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Ramadas, M., Burleigh, S., and Farrell, S. (2019, May 06). Licklider Transmission Protocol\u2014Specification. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc5326."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-6040.2008.00259.x","article-title":"A Hierarchy of Urban Communities: Observations on the Nested Character of Place","volume":"7","author":"Kusenbach","year":"2008","journal-title":"City Community"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"(2018, September 15). OpenStreetMap Data Extracts. Available online: http:\/\/download.geofabrik.de\/."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"(2018, September 15). PostgreSQL\u2014The World\u2019s Most Advanced Open Source Relational Database. Available online: https:\/\/www.postgresql.org\/."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"(2018, September 15). PostGIS\u2014Spatial and Geographic objects for PostgreSQL. Available online: https:\/\/postgis.net\/."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"(2018, May 17). OpenStreetMap City Blocks as GeoJSON Polygons. Available online: https:\/\/peteris.rocks\/blog\/openstreetmap-city-blocks-as-geojson-polygons\/."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"(2019, May 06). Shapely\u2014Manipulation and Analysis of Geometric Objects in the Cartesian Plane. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/Toblerity\/Shapely."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"(2018, September 15). QGIS\u2014A Free and Open Source Geographic Information System. Available online: https:\/\/qgis.org\/en\/site\/."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"(2018, November 02). The Gazetteer of Haidian. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Wu, J., Lu, H., and Xiang, Y. (2017, January 3\u20136). Measurement and comparison of Sub-1GHz and IEEE 802.11p in vehicular networks. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC), Heraklion, Greece."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"(2018, November 02). The Administrative Division Codes for Statistic Use, Haidian Distrct, Beijing, (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"(2018, September 15). SQLite. Available online: https:\/\/www.sqlite.org\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"(2018, September 15). SpatiaLite. Available online: https:\/\/www.gaia-gis.it\/fossil\/libspatialite\/index."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, W., Lu, H., Xiang, Y., Cai, B., Wu, J., and Gao, R. (February, January 31). AAaS: Area approaching and spray-and-wait routing scheme for DTN in Android. Proceedings of the 2016 18th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), Pyeongchang, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICACT.2016.7423452"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suo, K., Zhao, Y., Chen, W., and Rao, J. (2018, January 15\u201319). An Analysis and Empirical Study of Container Networks. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2018\u2014IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2018.8485865"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siby, S., Galati, A., Bourchas, T., Olivares, M., Gross, T.R., and Mangold, S. (2015, January 3\u20136). METhoD: A Framework for the Emulation of a Delay Tolerant Network Scenario for Media-Content Distribution in Under-Served Regions. Proceedings of the 2015 24th International Conference on Computer Communication and Networks (ICCCN), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCN.2015.7288425"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2015.7010543","article-title":"Delay-tolerant network protocol testing and evaluation","volume":"53","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2018.04.025","article-title":"Filling in the missing link between simulation and application in opportunistic networking","volume":"142","author":"Guidec","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Syst. Softw."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2005.12.003","article-title":"A survey on real-world implementations of mobile ad-hoc networks","volume":"5","author":"Kiess","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"(2018, November 19). ParallelSSH. Available online: https:\/\/parallel-ssh.org\/."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, J., Zheng, Y., Xie, X., and Sun, G. (2011, January 21\u201324). Driving with Knowledge from the Physical World. Proceedings of the 17th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD \u201911), San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2020408.2020462"}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/9\/1\/8\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:44:04Z","timestamp":1760190244000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/9\/1\/8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,20]]},"references-count":116,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi9010008"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi9010008","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,20]]}}}