{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T20:50:25Z","timestamp":1780606225324,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,19]],"date-time":"2020-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1589846400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002428","name":"Austrian Science Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DK W 1237-N23"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DK W 1237-N23"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002428","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Land use types and anthropogenic activities represent considerable threats to groundwater pollution. To effectively monitor the groundwater quality, it is vital to measure pollution levels before they become severe. In our research area, located in Gilgit Baltistan in northern Pakistan, groundwater supplies are diminishing due to urban sprawl. In this study, we used a GIS-based DRASTIC model (Depth to water, Recharge, Aquifer media, Soil media, Topography, Impact of the vadose zone, Hydraulic conductivity) to analyze the area\u2019s hydrological attributes to assess the groundwater susceptibility to pollution. Considering the importance of anthropogenic activities, this research primarily utilizes an adjusted DRASTIC model called DRASTICA, which incorporates anthropogenic impact as a parameter in the model. The resulting map, which depicts vulnerability to groundwater contamination, reveals that 19% of the study area is classed as having high vulnerability, 42% has moderate vulnerability, 37% has low vulnerability, and 2% has very low vulnerability to groundwater contamination. The adopted validation process (nitrate parameter of water quality) revealed that the suggested DRASTICA model achieved better results than the established DRASTIC model in a built-up environment. We used the nitrate concentration in groundwater to verify the formulated results, and the single parameter sensitivity analysis and map removal sensitivity analysis to analyze the model sensitivity. The sensitivity analysis indicated that the groundwater vulnerability to pollution is largely influenced by anthropogenic impact and depth to the water table, thereby suggesting that anthropogenic impact must be explicitly tackled in such studies. The groundwater zones exposed to anthropogenic pollution can be better classified with the help of the proposed DRASTICA model, particularly in and around built-up environments. The responsible authorities can use this groundwater contamination data as an early warning sign, so they can take practical actions to avoid extra pressure on this vital resource.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9050332","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,20]],"date-time":"2020-05-20T02:48:24Z","timestamp":1589942904000},"page":"332","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["A GIS-based DRASTIC Model and an Adjusted DRASTIC Model (DRASTICA) for Groundwater Susceptibility Assessment along the China\u2013Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) Route"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3745-516X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahsen","family":"Maqsoom","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus 47040, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7308-5285","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bilal","family":"Aslam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1095-3169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Umer","family":"Khalil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus 47040, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9664-8770","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Omid","family":"Ghorbanzadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoinformatics, University of Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hassan","family":"Ashraf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus 47040, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rana","family":"Faisal Tufail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus 47040, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3403-7744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danish","family":"Farooq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Transport Technology and Economics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 1111 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1860-8458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Blaschke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoinformatics, University of Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2214","article-title":"Water scarcity challenges to business","volume":"4","author":"Hoekstra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1500323","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1500323","article-title":"Four billion people facing severe water scarcity","volume":"2","author":"Mekonnen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b04309","article-title":"Virtual water scarcity risk to the global trade system","volume":"52","author":"Qu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hasan, M., Islam, A., Hasan, M.A., Alam, J., and Peas, M.H. Groundwater vulnerability assessment in Savar upazila of Dhaka district, Bangladesh\u2014A GIS-based DRASTIC modeling. Groundw. Sustain. Dev., 2019.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsd.2019.100220"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2360-9","article-title":"Groundwater vulnerability assessment in the Melaka State of Malaysia using DRASTIC and GIS techniques","volume":"70","author":"Shirazi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1007\/s00254-006-0534-4","article-title":"A new model (DRARCH) for assessing groundwater vulnerability to arsenic contamination at basin scale: a case study in Taiyuan basin, northern China","volume":"52","author":"Guo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Geol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-018-0944-1","article-title":"Assessment of vulnerability zones for ground water pollution using GIS-DRASTIC-EC model: A field-based approach","volume":"127","author":"Rao","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-016-2027-z","article-title":"Performance of CMORPH, TMPA, and PERSIANN rainfall datasets over plain, mountainous, and glacial regions of Pakistan","volume":"131","author":"Hussain","year":"2018","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8741","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-014-4041-x","article-title":"Groundwater vulnerability assessment using DRASTIC and Pesticide DRASTIC models in intense agriculture area of the Gangetic plains, India","volume":"186","author":"Saha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"169","article-title":"Identification and Delineation of Turag River Basin Boundary Using Remote Sensing Techniques","volume":"7","author":"Salam","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Nat. Resour."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s12303-017-0054-0","article-title":"Assessing the vulnerability of groundwater due to open pit coal mining using DRASTIC model: a case study of Phulbari Coal Mine, Bangladesh","volume":"22","author":"Haque","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geosci. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4098","DOI":"10.1021\/es802423e","article-title":"Assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption in LCA","volume":"43","author":"Pfister","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Luo, T., Young, R., and Reig, P. (2015). Aqueduct Projected Water Stress Country Rankings, World Resources Institute. Technical Note."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2013.08.038","article-title":"Optimization of DRASTIC method by supervised committee machine artificial intelligence to assess groundwater vulnerability for Maragheh\u2013Bonab plain aquifer, Iran","volume":"503","author":"Fijani","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4585","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-016-1440-5","article-title":"Localization of groundwater vulnerability assessment using catastrophe theory","volume":"30","author":"Sadeghfam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.06.130","article-title":"A comparison study of DRASTIC methods with various objective methods for groundwater vulnerability assessment","volume":"642","author":"Khosravi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2007.07.008","article-title":"A GIS based DRASTIC model for assessing groundwater vulnerability in shallow aquifer in Aligarh, India","volume":"28","author":"Rahman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"558","article-title":"Application of GIS and DRASTIC modeling for evaluation of groundwater vulnerability near a solid waste disposal site","volume":"7","author":"Jaseela","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Prior, J.C., Boekhoff, J.L., Howes, M.R., Libra, R.D., and VanDorpe, P.E. (2020, February 21). Iowa\u2019s Groundwater Basics: A Geological Guide to the Occurence, Use, and Vulnerability of Iowa\u2019s Aquifers. Available online: http:\/\/worldcat.org\/isbn\/00967878616."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.06.005","article-title":"Assessment of groundwater contamination risk using hazard quantification, a modified DRASTIC model and groundwater value, Beijing Plain, China","volume":"432","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jafrearsci.2019.103554","article-title":"Integration of water pollution indices and DRASTIC model for assessment of groundwater quality in El Fayoum depression, western desert, Egypt","volume":"158","author":"Gad","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Afr. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"242","article-title":"A GIS-based approach to evaluating regional groundwater pollution potential with DRASTIC","volume":"45","author":"Evans","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Soil Water Conserv."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1006\/jema.1998.0221","article-title":"Groundwater vulnerability assessment using a composite model combining DRASTIC with extensive agricultural land use in Israel\u2019s Sharon region","volume":"54","author":"Secunda","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"65","article-title":"Regional assessment of groundwater vulnerability in Tamtsag basin, Mongolia using drastic model","volume":"6","author":"Hasiniaina","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1680\/wama.10.00018","article-title":"Groundwater intrinsic vulnerability and risk mapping","volume":"165","author":"Farjad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Institut. Civil Eng. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-012-1945-z","article-title":"A GIS-based DRASTIC model for assessing groundwater vulnerability in the Ordos Plateau, China","volume":"69","author":"Yin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5475","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-015-4558-5","article-title":"A modified-DRASTIC model (DRASTICA) for assessment of groundwater vulnerability to pollution in an urbanized environment in Lucknow, India","volume":"74","author":"Singh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aller, L. (1985). DRASTIC: A Standardized System for Evaluating Ground Water Pollution Potential Using Hydrogeologic Settings, Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency.","DOI":"10.1021\/bk-1986-0315.ch008"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"595","article-title":"Vulnerability assessment of an agro-stressed aquifer using a source-pathway-receptor model in GIS","volume":"3","author":"Hussain","year":"2017","journal-title":"MESE"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-012-0796-y","article-title":"A new model (DRASTIC-LU) for evaluating groundwater vulnerability in parts of central Ganga Plain, India","volume":"7","author":"Alam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1711","article-title":"Assessment of aquifer vulnerability in parts of Indo Gangetic plain, India","volume":"5","author":"Khan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Phys Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Ckakraborty, S., Paul, P., and Sikdar, P. (2007). Assessing aquifer vulnerability to arsenic pollution using DRASTIC and GIS of North Bengal Plain: a case study of English Bazar Block, Malda District, West Bengal, India. J. Spat. Sci., 7."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2003.08.007","article-title":"Groundwater vulnerability and risk mapping for the Basaltic aquifer of the Azraq basin of Jordan using GIS, remote sensing and DRASTIC","volume":"23","author":"Foster","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.08.037","article-title":"Assessment and validation of groundwater vulnerability to nitrate based on a modified DRASTIC model: a case study in Jilin City of northeast China","volume":"440","author":"Huan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2012.11.020","article-title":"The multivariate statistical structure of DRASTIC model","volume":"476","author":"Pacheco","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-004-0396-3","article-title":"Evaluation of an intrinsic and a specific vulnerability assessment method in comparison with groundwater salinisation and nitrate contamination levels in two agricultural regions in the south of Portugal","volume":"14","author":"Stigter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12713","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-1449-9","article-title":"Assessment of groundwater vulnerability by applying the modified DRASTIC model in Beihai City, China","volume":"25","author":"Xiaoyu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-016-0725-7","article-title":"Evaluation of groundwater vulnerability in El-Bahariya Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt, using modelling and GIS techniques: A case study","volume":"125","author":"Masoud","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Earth Sys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3119","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2690-7","article-title":"Estimating groundwater vulnerability to pollution using a modified DRASTIC model in the Kerman agricultural area, Iran","volume":"71","author":"Neshat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"701","article-title":"Assessment of groundwater vulnerability based on a modified DRASTIC model, GIS and an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method: the case of Egirdir Lake basin (Isparta, Turkey)","volume":"21","author":"Sener","year":"2013","journal-title":"HydJ"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2014.02.008","article-title":"Groundwater vulnerability assessment using an improved DRASTIC method in GIS","volume":"86","author":"Neshat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-014-1503-y","article-title":"An integrated DRASTIC model using frequency ratio and two new hybrid methods for groundwater vulnerability assessment","volume":"76","author":"Neshat","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2581-y","article-title":"An aquifer vulnerability assessment of the Benin Formation aquifer, Calabar, southeastern Nigeria, using DRASTIC and GIS approach","volume":"71","author":"Edet","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.11.135","article-title":"Mapping the groundwater vulnerability for pollution at the pan African scale","volume":"544","author":"Ouedraogo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"138","article-title":"Evaluation of Models for Assessing Groundwater Vulnerability to Pollution in Niigeria","volume":"2","author":"Usman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bayero Pure Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-008-9319-8","article-title":"A GIS-based DRASTIC model for assessing aquifer vulnerability in Kherran Plain, Khuzestan, Iran","volume":"23","author":"Chitsazan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s13201-014-0221-7","article-title":"A GIS-based DRASTIC model for assessing intrinsic groundwater vulnerability in northeastern Missan governorate, southern Iraq","volume":"7","author":"Aljabbari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Applied Water Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"11","article-title":"A GIS based DRASTIC model for assessing groundwater vulnerability of Katri Watershed, Dhanbad, India","volume":"1","author":"Ghosh","year":"2015","journal-title":"MESE"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jafrearsci.2014.11.001","article-title":"DRASTIC-GIS model for assessing vulnerability to pollution of the phreatic aquiferous formations in Douala\u2013Cameroon","volume":"102","author":"Neh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Afr. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-015-4120-5","article-title":"Hydrogeological vulnerability and pollution risk mapping of the Saq and overlying aquifers using the DRASTIC model and GIS techniques, NW Saudi Arabia","volume":"74","author":"Ahmed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsd.2019.02.006","article-title":"Investigating aquifer vulnerability and pollution risk employing modified DRASTIC model and GIS techniques in Liwa area, United Arab Emirates","volume":"8","author":"Nazzal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Groundw. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-010-0871-1","article-title":"Land use change scenarios and associated groundwater impacts in a protected peri-urban area","volume":"64","author":"Dimitriou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-010-0801-2","article-title":"GIS-based impact assessment of land-use changes on groundwater quality: study from a rapidly urbanizing region of South India","volume":"63","author":"Khan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Hussain, Y. (2014). Hydrogeophysical Investigations and GIS Vulnerability Mapping of Kot Addu, Quaid-i-Azam University."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-017-6391-5","article-title":"Modelling the vulnerability of groundwater to contamination in an unconfined alluvial aquifer in Pakistan","volume":"76","author":"Hussain","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-014-1130-4","article-title":"The DRASTIC-Sg model: an extension to the DRASTIC approach for mapping groundwater vulnerability in aquifers subject to differential land subsidence, with application to Mexico City","volume":"22","author":"Falorni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.4236\/eng.2015.710057","article-title":"Groundwater vulnerability mapping using lineament density on standard DRASTIC model: case study in Halabja Saidsadiq Basin, Kurdistan Region, Iraq","volume":"7","author":"Abdullah","year":"2015","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.4491\/eer.2017.072","article-title":"Groundwater pollution risk mapping using modified DRASTIC model in parts of Hail region of Saudi Arabia","volume":"23","author":"Ahmed","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"00040","article-title":"Water Quality Assessment and Apportionment of Northern Pakistan Using Multivariate Statistical Techniques\u2013A Case Study","volume":"2","author":"Zafar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Snedecor, G.W., and Cochran, W.G. (1980). Statistical Methods, Iowa State University. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1569","article-title":"Groundwater vulnerability assessment in shallow aquifer of Kathmandu Valley using GIS-based DRASTIC model","volume":"57","author":"Pathak","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6584.1994.tb00642.x","article-title":"A study of the DRASTIC methodology with emphasis on Swedish conditions","volume":"32","author":"Rosen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Ground Water"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"1147","article-title":"Assessment of the relative vulnerability of groundwater to pollution: a review and background paper for the conference workshop on vulnerability assessment","volume":"14","author":"Barber","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Aust. Geol. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1080\/02693799008941556","article-title":"Attribute error and sensitivity analysis of map operations in geographical informations systems: suitability analysis","volume":"4","author":"Lodwick","year":"1990","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Napolitano, P., and Fabbri, A. (2020, May 07). Single-parameter sensitivity analysis for aquifer vulnerability assessment using DRASTIC and SINTACS. Available online: http:\/\/hydrologie.org\/redbooks\/a235\/iahs_235_0559.pdf."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2004.11.005","article-title":"A GIS-based DRASTIC model for assessing aquifer vulnerability in Kakamigahara Heights, Gifu Prefecture, central Japan","volume":"345","author":"Babiker","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/9\/5\/332\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:30:26Z","timestamp":1760175026000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/9\/5\/332"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,19]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi9050332"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi9050332","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,19]]}}}