{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T04:46:18Z","timestamp":1783572378379,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,26]],"date-time":"2020-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1603670400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41871375 and 41907389"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41871375 and 41907389"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018YFB2100704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFB2100704"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Catchment division constitutes the foundation for urban water flood forecasting but represents a technically challenging task. The accurate division of catchments is significant for precisely forecasting urban waterlogging. However, existing catchment division methods usually lead to produce results that do not accurately reflect the actual land-use distributions. In recent years, most research has been performed in smaller study areas (less than 10 km2), in residential areas, parks and campuses, and usually focused on a single landscape type. However, for large highly urbanized areas with complex land uses, due to the spatial heterogeneity and complexity of such areas in terms of building, traffic network and hydrology, etc., there is few studies on sub-catchment division. Moreover, the division results by using existing method usually have deviate with the actual land-type distributions. To address the above-mentioned issues, a sub-catchment division method was here proposed that accounts for land-use types and flow directions, and it is suitable for large urban areas by introducing an auto-adaptive threshold adjustment in a novel algorithm. First, the study area is divided into first- and second-level (FL and SL, respectively) catchments according to the macroscale features such as natural landforms, canals, and pipe network. Second, an amended DEM (Digital Elevation Model) and flow direction data are used to divide the SL catchments into third-level direction-based (D-B) catchments. Finally, a novel land use-based algorithm is proposed to divide the D-B catchments into the \u201csmallest\u201d catchments (S-catchments). A large-scale area (44 km2) in Dongying City of China was employed to validate the proposed method. The experiment showed that the proposed method is suitable for subcatchment divisions in large regions and can ensure that the subcatchments are consistent with the actual distribution of land uses and runoff directions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9110634","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,27]],"date-time":"2020-10-27T09:22:45Z","timestamp":1603790565000},"page":"634","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Methodology of Sub-Catchment Division Considering Land Uses and Flow Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Chengming","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Beijing 100830, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zixian","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang 110168, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zheng","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Beijing 100830, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhaoxin","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Beijing 100830, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Beijing 100830, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chengcheng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Beijing 100830, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-17-379-2013","article-title":"Urbanization and climate change impacts on future urban flooding in Can Tho city Vietnam","volume":"17","author":"Huong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad8641","article-title":"Emerging solutions to the water challenges of an urbanizing world","volume":"352","author":"Tove","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"8","article-title":"An enhanced inundation method for urban flood hazard mapping at the large catchment scale","volume":"2","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.30955\/gnj.001717","article-title":"Assessing the sensitivity of SWMM to variations in hydrological and hydraulic parameters: A case study for the city of Istanbul","volume":"18","author":"Akdogan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob NEST J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-012-0092-0","article-title":"Modelling runoff quantity and quality in tropical urban catchments using storm water management model","volume":"9","author":"Chow","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1002\/cae.20124","article-title":"Sanitary sewer design using EPA storm water management model (SWMM)","volume":"18","author":"Lowe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7717","DOI":"10.1029\/2018WR024083","article-title":"Hydraulic Characterization of River Networks Based on Flow Patterns Simulated by 2-D Shallow Water Modeling: Scaling Properties, Multifractal Interpretation, and Perspectives for Channel Heads Detection","volume":"55","author":"Costabile","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.12.020","article-title":"Experimental validation of two-dimensional depth-averaged models for forecasting rainfall-runoff from precipitation data in urban areas","volume":"382","author":"Cea","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Amst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12568","DOI":"10.1111\/jfr3.12568","article-title":"Flood hydrograph prediction in a semiarid mountain catchment: The role of catchment subdivision","volume":"13","author":"Hassan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Flood Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2010.06.011","article-title":"A physically based watershed partitioning method","volume":"33","author":"Rulli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alam, B.M. (2012). Demand allocation in water distribution network modelling\u2014A GIS-based approach using Voronoi diagrams with constraints. Application of Geographic Information Systems, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/1944"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/S0734-189X(84)80011-0","article-title":"The Extraction of Drainage Networks from Digital Elevation Data","volume":"28","author":"Mark","year":"1984","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Graph. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2016.12.009","article-title":"An efficient method for applying a differential equation to deriving the spatial distribution of specific catchment area from gridded digital elevation models","volume":"100","author":"Qin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Cheng, X., Zhao, D., and Ma, H. (2018, January 22\u201327). Analyzing the contribution of high resolution water range in dividing catchment based on D8 algorithm. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS 2018), Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2018.8519573"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Improving overland flow routing by incorporating ancillary road data into Digital Elevation Models","volume":"3","author":"Duke","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Spat. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, W., Chen, Y., Chen, Z., Xia, Z., and Zhou, Q. (2020). Service Area Delimitation of Fire Stations with Fire Risk Analysis: Implementation and Case Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17062030"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.2174\/1874149501509010515","article-title":"A GIS-based subcatchments division approach for SWMM","volume":"9","author":"Shen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Open Civ. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-019-03623-2","article-title":"A methodology for simple 2-D inundation analysis in urban area using SWMM and GIS","volume":"97","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2017.01.056","article-title":"Applicability of open rainfall data to event-scale urban rainfall-runoff modelling","volume":"547","author":"Tero","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"653","article-title":"SWMM-based rainfall-runoff simulations in large-scale urban area with no pipeline-flow observations: I: Key techniques for digitalizing urban area with complicated land-surface characteristics","volume":"30","author":"Luan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Water Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1029\/93WR03512","article-title":"Digital elevation model networks (DEMON): A model of flow over hillslopes for computation of contributing and dispersal areas","volume":"30","author":"Burges","year":"1994","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orlandini, S., and Moretti, G. (2009). Determination of surface flow paths from gridded elevation data. Water Resour. Res., 45.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008WR007099"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1029\/2012WR012452","article-title":"A robust, two-parameter method for the extraction of drainage networks from high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs): Evaluation using synthetic and real-world DEMs","volume":"49","author":"Pelletier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2016.04.026","article-title":"GeoNet: An open source software for the automatic and objective extraction of channel heads, channel network, and channel morphology from high resolution topography data","volume":"83","author":"Sangireddy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"761","article-title":"Division method of catchments of plain river network based on Voronoi map","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Zhejiang Agric Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12634","article-title":"Small-area patch-merging method accounting for both local constraints and the overall area balance","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"337","article-title":"An Automated Watershed Delineations Approach for Plain River Network Regions: A Case Study in Shanghai","volume":"22","author":"Zuo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Water Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.2747\/1548-1603.49.5.711","article-title":"The flat area issue in DEMs and its consequences on the rainfall-runoff modeling","volume":"49","author":"Petroselli","year":"2012","journal-title":"GIScience Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/9\/11\/634\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:28:41Z","timestamp":1760178521000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/9\/11\/634"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,26]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi9110634"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi9110634","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,26]]}}}