{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T22:18:04Z","timestamp":1778192284052,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,15]],"date-time":"2020-12-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1607990400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41871289"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41871289"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Sichuan Youth Science and Technology innovation Team","award":["2020JDTD0003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020JDTD0003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Evacuation simulations in virtual indoor fire scenes hold great significance for public safety. However, existing evacuation simulation methods are inefficient and provide poor visualized when applied to virtual reality (VR) simulations. Additionally, the influences of the interaction of evacuation processes on the choice of multiple exits have not been fully considered. In the paper, we propose a VR simulation method for crowd evacuation in a multiexit indoor fire environment. An indoor 3D scene model and character model, for studying the environmental factors that affect the multiexit selection of personnel during the fire process, are combined with environmental factors to enhance the evacuation route planning algorithm to improve the efficiency of the VR simulation of evacuation in the scene. In addition, a prototype system that supports multiple experience modes is proposed, and case experiment analyses are performed. The results show that the method described in this paper can effectively support the real-time simulation of indoor fire evacuations in virtual scenes, providing both reliable simulation results and good visualization effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9120750","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,15]],"date-time":"2020-12-15T09:12:57Z","timestamp":1608023577000},"page":"750","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["A Virtual Reality Simulation Method for Crowd Evacuation in a Multiexit Indoor Fire Environment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Yukun","family":"Guo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0714-0172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinchuan","family":"Chai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Railway Test Central, China Academy of Railway Sciences Corporation Limited, Bejing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weilian","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bingli","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information and Communication, The Army Academy of Armored Forces, Fengtai District, Bejing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuhang","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sichuan Center of Satellite Application Technology, Sichuan Institute of Land Science and Technology, Chengdu 610045, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2013.10.022","article-title":"Influences of intelligent evacuation guidance system on crowd evacuation in building fire","volume":"41","author":"Ran","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1007\/s10489-014-0538-9","article-title":"Escape planning in realistic fire scenarios with Ant Colony Optimisation","volume":"42","author":"Goodwin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Intell."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Helbing, D., and Johansson, A. (2013). Pedestrian, crowd, and evacuation dynamics. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-27737-5_382-5"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.simpat.2017.03.010","article-title":"Extended route choice model based on available evacuation route set and its application in crowd evacuation simulation","volume":"75","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"Simul. Model. Pr. Theory"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pendit, U.C., Bin Mahzan, M., Basir, M.D.F.B.M., Bin Mahadzir, M., and Musa, S.N.B. (2017, January 2\u20133). Virtual reality escape room: The last breakout. Proceedings of the 2017 2nd International Conference on Information Technology (INCIT), Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/INCIT.2017.8257884"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejvs.2005.11.009","article-title":"Virtual Reality Simulation Training can Improve Inexperienced Surgeons\u2019 Endovascular Skills","volume":"31","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goedicke, D., Li, J., Evers, V., and Ju, W. (2018, January 21\u201326). VR-OOM: Virtual reality on-road driving simulation. Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/3173574.3173739"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2013.11.031","article-title":"Teaching Methodology for Virtual Reality Practical Course in Engineering Education","volume":"25","author":"Ovtcharova","year":"2013","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312318","DOI":"10.1097\/NXN.0b013e31824af6ae","article-title":"Virtual reality simulation: Using three-dimensional technology to teach nursing students","volume":"30","author":"Jenson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Inform. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"CD008237","article-title":"Virtual reality simulation training for health professions trainees in gastrointestinal endoscopy","volume":"6","author":"Walsh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farley, H.S. (2018). Using 3D worlds in prison: Driving, learning and escape. J. Virtual Worlds Res., 11.","DOI":"10.4101\/jvwr.v11i1.7304"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2018.08.041","article-title":"A virtual reality based study of indoor fire evacuation after active or passive spatial exploration","volume":"90","author":"Cao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2006.02.003","article-title":"A game theory based exit selection model for evacuation","volume":"41","author":"Lo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Botea, A., Bouzy, B., Buro, M., Bauckhage, C., and Nau, D. (2013). Pathfinding in Games, Schloss Dagstuhl-Leibniz-Zentrum fuer Informatik."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Li, J., Harabor, D., Stuckey, P.J., Ma, H., and Koenig, S. (February, January 27). Symmetry-Breaking Constraints for Grid-Based Multi-Agent Path Finding. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, Q., Zhu, Q., Du, Z., Zhu, X., Zhang, Y., Niu, L., Li, Y., and Zhou, Y. (2017). A Dynamic Indoor Field Model for Emergency Evacuation Simulation. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6040104"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238727","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/238727","article-title":"Waypoint Graph Based Fast Pathfinding in Dynamic Environment","volume":"11","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Rabin, S. (2002). Strategic and Tactical Reasoning with Waypoints. AI Programming Wisdom, Charles River Media."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"33","article-title":"An evacuation system for extraordinary indoor air pollution disaster circumstances","volume":"5","author":"Karas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Disaster Adv."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, F., Cao, G., and Li, X. (2014, January 4). An interactive approach for deriving geometric network models in 3D indoor environments. Proceedings of the Sixth ACM SIGSPATIAL International Workshop on Indoor Spatial\u2014SA\u201914, Dallas\/Fort Worth, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2676528.2676531"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1080\/19475683.2014.942363","article-title":"Near optimal allocation strategy for making a staged evacuation plan with multiple exits","volume":"20","author":"Xie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. GIS"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2011.09.021","article-title":"GIS-based 3D evacuation simulation for indoor fire","volume":"49","author":"Tang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.1030-1032.1745","article-title":"Pathfinding algorithm of 3D scene based on navigation mesh","volume":"Volume 1030","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Advanced Materials Research"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2011.08.604","article-title":"Automatic generated navigation mesh algorithm on 3D game scene","volume":"15","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2013.09.008","article-title":"Ant Colony Routing algorithm for freeway networks","volume":"37","author":"Cong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.endm.2004.06.029","article-title":"An Ant Colony Algorithm for the Capacitated Vehicle Routing","volume":"18","author":"Mazzeo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Electron. Notes Discret. Math."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1016\/S1665-6423(14)70097-5","article-title":"An Energy Efficient Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks using A-star Algorithm","volume":"12","author":"Ghaffari","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2014.12.098","article-title":"Path Planning with Modified a Star Algorithm for a Mobile Robot","volume":"96","author":"Babinec","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1109\/100.580977","article-title":"The dynamic window approach to collision avoidance","volume":"4","author":"Fox","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.1030-1032.1745","article-title":"Pathfinding algorithm of 3D scene based on navigation mesh","volume":"1030\u20131032","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2018.11.028","article-title":"Modelling building emergency evacuation plans considering the dynamic behaviour of pedestrians using agent-based simulation","volume":"113","author":"Rozo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2019.104540","article-title":"How occupants respond to building emergencies: A systematic review of behavioral characteristics and behavioral theories","volume":"122","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2013.10.004","article-title":"A discrete choice model based on random utilities for exit choice in emergency evacuations","volume":"62","author":"Lovreglio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1002\/cav.1468","article-title":"A navigation mesh for dynamic environments","volume":"23","author":"Atlas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Animat. Virtual Worlds"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Krishnaswamy, N. (2009). Comparison of Efficiency in Pathfinding Algorithms in Game Development, DePaul University. Available online: https:\/\/via.library.depaul.edu\/tr\/10."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hudziak, M., Pozniak-Koszalka, I., Koszalka, L., and Kasprzak, A. (2015, January 23\u201325). Comparison of Algorithms for Multi-agent Pathfinding in Crowded Environment. Proceedings of the Asian Conference on Intelligent Information and Database Systems, Bali, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-15702-3_23"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1103","article-title":"Dynamic Planning Method of Indoor Fire Escape Path Based on Navigation Grid","volume":"55","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Southwest Jiao Tong Univ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wong, M.O., and Lee, S. (2019). A Technical Review on Developing BIM-Oriented Indoor Route Planning. Computing in Civil Engineering 2019: Visualization, Information Modeling, and Simulation, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE).","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784482421.043"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2016.04.007","article-title":"BIM-oriented indoor network model for indoor and outdoor combined route planning","volume":"30","author":"Teo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Inform."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, H.-K., and Li, K.-J. (2017). A Standard Indoor Spatial Data Model\u2014OGC IndoorGML and Implementation Approaches. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6040116"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1265","article-title":"Calculation of pool fire thermal radiation safe distance based on Monte Carlo method","volume":"12","author":"Jun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Fire Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2003.10.003","article-title":"An evacuation model: The SGEM package","volume":"39","author":"Lo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"487","article-title":"Simulating dynamical features of escape panic","volume":"407","author":"Helbing","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.73.1067","article-title":"Traffic and related self-driven many-particle systems","volume":"73","author":"Helbing","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Mod. Phys."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385104","DOI":"10.1088\/1751-8113\/41\/38\/385104","article-title":"A modified floor field cellular automata model for pedestrian evacuation simulation","volume":"41","author":"Guo","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. A Math. Theor."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3068335","article-title":"DBSCAN revisited, revisited: Why and how you should (still) use DBSCAN","volume":"42","author":"Schubert","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Database Syst."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2016.03.008","article-title":"A fast DBSCAN clustering algorithm by accelerating neighbor searching using Groups method","volume":"58","author":"Kumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Ren, A., Chen, C., Shi, J., and Zou, L. (2006, January 26\u201329). Application of virtual reality technology to evacuation simulation in fire disaster. Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference on Computer Graphics & Virtual Reality, CGVR 2006, Las Vegas, NV, USA."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/9\/12\/750\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:45:12Z","timestamp":1760179512000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/9\/12\/750"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,15]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi9120750"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi9120750","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,15]]}}}