{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,15]],"date-time":"2026-03-15T06:48:56Z","timestamp":1773557336295,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,17]],"date-time":"2019-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1555459200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Automated driving systems (ADS) and a combination of these with advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) will soon be available to a large consumer population. Apart from testing automated driving features and human\u2013machine interfaces (HMI), the development and evaluation of training for interacting with driving automation has been largely neglected. The present work outlines the conceptual development of two possible approaches of user education which are the owner\u2019s manual and an interactive tutorial. These approaches are investigated by comparing them to a baseline consisting of generic information about the system function. Using a between-subjects design, N = 24 participants complete one training prior to interacting with the ADS HMI in a driving simulator. Results show that both the owner\u2019s manual and an interactive tutorial led to an increased understanding of driving automation systems as well as an increased interaction performance. This work contributes to method development for the evaluation of ADS by proposing two alternative approaches of user education and their implications for both application in realistic settings and HMI testing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info10040143","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,17]],"date-time":"2019-04-17T07:58:09Z","timestamp":1555487889000},"page":"143","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":70,"title":["User Education in Automated Driving: Owner\u2019s Manual and Interactive Tutorial Support Mental Model Formation and Human-Automation Interaction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Yannick","family":"Forster","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"BMW Group, 80937 Munich, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4061-8273","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebastian","family":"Hergeth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BMW Group, 80937 Munich, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1712-6473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frederik","family":"Naujoks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BMW Group, 80937 Munich, Germany"}]},{"given":"Josef","family":"Krems","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Keinath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BMW Group, 80937 Munich, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"SAE (2018). Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems, SAE International."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2018.10.012","article-title":"Towards guidelines and verification methods for automated vehicle HMIs","volume":"60","author":"Naujoks","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traff. Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"NHTSA (2016). Federal Automated Vehicles Policy. Accelerating the Next Revolution in Roadway Safety."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2010.07.001","article-title":"Commentary training improves responsiveness to hazards in a driving simulator","volume":"42","author":"Crundall","year":"2010","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130802550232","article-title":"Can younger drivers be trained to scan for information that will reduce their risk in roadway traffic scenarios that are hard to identify as hazardous?","volume":"52","author":"Pradhan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-1098(83)90046-8","article-title":"Ironies of automation","volume":"19","author":"Bainbridge","year":"1983","journal-title":"Automatica"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1177\/1555343417695197","article-title":"Autonomous driving systems: A preliminary naturalistic study of the Tesla Model S","volume":"11","author":"Endsley","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Eng. Decis. Mak."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Meyer, G., and Beiker, S. (2019). Training and Education: Human Factors Considerations for Automated Driving Systems. Road Vehicle Automation 5, Springer."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jarosch, O., Kuhnt, M., Paradies, S., and Bengler, K. (2017, January 26\u201329). It\u2019s Out of Our Hands Now! Effects of Non-Driving Related Tasks during Highly Automated Driving on Drivers\u2019 Fatigue. Proceedings of the 9th International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training, and Vehicle Design, Manchester Village, VT, USA.","DOI":"10.17077\/drivingassessment.1653"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forster, Y., Naujoks, F., and Neukum, A. (2017, January 11\u201314). Increasing anthropomorphism and trust in automated driving functions by adding speech output. Proceedings of the IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, Redondo Beach, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IVS.2017.7995746"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720816678714","article-title":"Prior familiarization with takeover requests affects drivers\u2019 takeover performance and automation trust","volume":"59","author":"Hergeth","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feldh\u00fctter, A., Segler, C., and Bengler, K. (2017, January 17\u201321). Does Shifting Between Conditionally and Partially Automated Driving Lead to a Loss of Mode Awareness?. Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics, Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-60441-1_70"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"431","article-title":"The effect of urgency take-over requests during highly automated driving under distraction conditions","volume":"7","author":"Naujoks","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Hum. Asp. Transp."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Donmez, B., Walker, B.N., and Fr\u00f6hlich, K. (2018, January 23\u201325). How Usability can Save the Day. Methodological Considerations for Making Automated Driving a Success Story. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Toronto, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2019.02.013","article-title":"Learning to Use Automation: Behavioral Changes in Interaction with Automated Driving Systems","volume":"62","author":"Forster","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traff. Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2015.10.005","article-title":"Learning and development of trust, acceptance and the mental model of ACC. A longitudinal on-road study","volume":"35","author":"Beggiato","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traff. Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forster, Y., Hergeth, S., Naujoks, F., Beggiato, M., Krems, J.F., and Keinath, A. (2019, January 24\u201327). Learning and Development of Mental Models in Interaction with Driving Automation: A Simulator Study. Proceedings of the 10th International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training, and Vehicle Design, Santa Fe, NM, USA.","DOI":"10.17077\/drivingassessment.1724"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931218621426","article-title":"Use Cases for Assessing, Testing, and Validating the Human Machine Interface of Automated Driving Systems","volume":"62","author":"Naujoks","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1080\/14639220210123806","article-title":"Multiple resources and performance prediction","volume":"3","author":"Wickens","year":"2002","journal-title":"Theor. Issues Ergon. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"3","article-title":"Empfehlungen f\u00fcr die Bestimmung der Spurhalteg\u00fcte im Kontext der Fahrsimulation","volume":"11","author":"Knappe","year":"2006","journal-title":"MMi-Interaktiv"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"AAM (2006). Statement of Principles, Criteria and Verification Procedures on Driver Interactions with Advanced in-Vehicle Information and Communication Systems, Alliance of Automobile Manufactures."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"NHTSA (2012). Visual-Manual NHTSA Driver Distraction Guidelines for in-Vehicle Electronic Devices."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2017.09.019","article-title":"Driver compliance to take-over requests with different auditory outputs in conditional automation","volume":"109","author":"Forster","year":"2017","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720813482327","article-title":"Improving the driver\u2013automation interaction: An approach using automation uncertainty","volume":"55","author":"Beller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2017.01.001","article-title":"Are you in the loop? Using gaze dispersion to understand driver visual attention during vehicle automation","volume":"76","author":"Louw","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Boll, S., Pfleging, B., and Donmez, B. (2017, January 24\u201327). What We Can Learn from Pilots for Handovers and (De)Skilling in Semi-Autonomous Driving. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Oldenburg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Fitts, P.M., and Posner, M.I. (1967). Human Performance, Brooks\/Cole."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120204600610","article-title":"On the Reading of Product Owner\u2019s Manuals: Perceptions and Product Complexity","volume":"46","author":"Mehlenbacher","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wickens, C.D., Hollands, J.G., Banbury, S., and Parasuraman, R. (2015). Engineering Psychology & Human Performance, Psychology Press.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315665177"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rocha, \u00c1., Correia, A.M., Wilson, T., and Stroetmann, K.A. (2013). User Documentation: The Cinderella of Information Systems. Advances in Information Systems and Technologies, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-36981-0"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2012.12.006","article-title":"The evolution of mental model, trust and acceptance of adaptive cruise control in relation to initial information","volume":"18","author":"Beggiato","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traff. Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2018.01.010","article-title":"The role of system description for conditionally automated vehicles","volume":"54","author":"Huff","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traff. Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Donmez, B., Walker, B.N., and Fr\u00f6hlich, K. (2018, January 23\u201325). Calibration of Trust Expectancies in Conditionally Automated Driving by Brand, Reliability Information and Introductionary Videos: An online study. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Toronto, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2017.07.006","article-title":"Introduction matters: Manipulating trust in automation and reliance in automated driving","volume":"66","author":"Baseler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hock, P., Kraus, J., Walch, M., Lang, N., and Baumann, M. (2016, January 24\u201326). Elaborating Feedback Strategies for Maintaining Automation in Highly Automated Driving. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3003715.3005414"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1","article-title":"A note on presence terminology","volume":"3","author":"Slater","year":"2003","journal-title":"Presence Connect"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Brehm, J.W. (1966). A Theory of Psychological Reactance, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pradhan, A.K., Fisher, D.L., and Pollatsek, A. (2005, January 27\u201330). The effect of PC-based training on novice driver\u2019 risk awareness in a driving simulator. Proceedings of the 3rd International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training, and Vehicle Design, Rockport, ME, USA.","DOI":"10.17077\/drivingassessment.1146"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2015.07.005","article-title":"Evaluation of the effectiveness of a multi-skill program for training younger drivers on higher cognitive skills","volume":"52","author":"Yamani","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2017.02.001","article-title":"Impact of training and in-vehicle task performance on manual control recovery in an automated car","volume":"46","author":"Payre","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traff. Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.39.4.377","article-title":"Learning Outcomes and Their Effects. Useful Categories of Human Performance","volume":"39","author":"Gagne","year":"1984","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forster, Y., Naujoks, F., and Neukum, A. (2016, January 24\u201326). Your Turn or My Turn? Design of a Human-Machine Interface for Conditional Automation. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3003715.3005463"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Manca, L., de Winter, J.C.F., and Happee, R. (2015). Visual Displays for Autoamted Driving: A Survey. Adjunct Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Itneractive Vehicular Applications, Association for Computing Machinery."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2015.10.022","article-title":"Controllability of Partially Automated Driving functions\u2013Does it matter whether drivers are allowed to take their hands off the steering wheel?","volume":"35","author":"Naujoks","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traff. Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naujoks, F., Forster, Y., Wiedemann, K., and Neukum, A. (2016). A Human-Machine Interface for Cooperative Highly Automated Driving. Advances in Human Aspects of Transportation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-41682-3_49"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1207\/S15328007SEM0803_2","article-title":"Performance of Bootstrapping Approaches to Model Test Statistics and Parameter Standard Error Estimation in Structural Equation Modeling","volume":"8","author":"Nevitt","year":"2001","journal-title":"Struct. Equ. Model."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.22237\/jmasm\/1036109820","article-title":"Trimming, Transforming Statistics, and Bootstrapping: Circumventing the Biasing Effects of Heterescedasticity and Nonnormality","volume":"1","author":"Keselman","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mod. Appl. Stat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1026\/0049-8637\/a000184","article-title":"Die New Statistics in der Psychologie","volume":"50","year":"2018","journal-title":"Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Entwicklungspsychologie und P\u00e4dagogische Psychologie"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cumming, G. (2013). Understanding the New Statistics: Effect Sizes, Confidence Intervals, and Meta-Analysis, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203807002"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.60.2.170","article-title":"Inference by eye: Confidence intervals and how to read pictures of data","volume":"60","author":"Cumming","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.2307\/249008","article-title":"Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology","volume":"13","author":"Davis","year":"1989","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1518\/001872007X196685","article-title":"Pilots\u2019 monitoring strategies and performance on automated flight decks: An empirical study combining behavioral and eye-tracking data","volume":"49","author":"Sarter","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Hart, C.A. (2019, March 14). Self Driving Safety Steps into the Unknown. Available online: http:\/\/www.thedrive.com\/tech\/26896\/self-driving-safety-steps-into-the-unknown."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McIlwraith, A. (2016). Information Security and Employee Behaviour: How to Reduce Risk through Employee Education, Training and Awareness, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315588537"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michon, J.A. (1985). A critical view of driver behavior models: What do we know, what should we do?. Human Behavior and Traffic Safety, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-2173-6_19"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forster, Y., Hergeth, S., Naujoks, F., and Krems, J.F. (2018, January 23\u201325). Unskilled and Unaware: Subpar Users of Automated Driving Systems Make Spurious Decisions. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/3239092.3265960"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1007\/s10459-010-9222-y","article-title":"Likert scales, levels of measurement and the \u201claws\u201d of statistics","volume":"15","author":"Norman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Health Sci. Educ. Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kauffmann, N., Winkler, F., and Vollrath, M. (2018, January 21\u201326). What Makes an Automated Vehicle a Good Driver?. Proceedings of the CHI Conference, Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/3173574.3173742"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Neukum, A., L\u00fcbbecke, T., Kr\u00fcger, H.-P., Mayser, C., and Steinle, J. (2019, April 16). ACC-Stop&Go: Fahrerverhalten an Funktionalen SYSTEMGRENZEN, 5. Workshop Fahrerassistenzsysteme\u2014FAS. Available online: http:\/\/www2.psychologie.uni-wuerzburg.de\/izvw\/texte\/2008_Neukum_etal_ACC_Stop&Go.pdf."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Norman, D. (2013). The Design of Everyday Things: Revised and Expanded Edition, Basic Books."}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/10\/4\/143\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:46:08Z","timestamp":1760186768000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/10\/4\/143"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,17]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4]]}},"alternative-id":["info10040143"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info10040143","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,17]]}}}