{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:41:55Z","timestamp":1760222515173,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,22]],"date-time":"2010-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1287705600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper is devoted to a study of the concept of information. We first situate the concept of information within the context of other philosophical concepts. However, an analysis of the concept of knowledge turns out to be the key when clarifying the concept of information. Our investigations produce the \u2018missing link\u2019 for the \u201cseverely neglected connection between theories of information and theories of knowledge\u201d (Capurro\/Hj\u00f8rland). The results presented here clarify what information is and have the potential to provide answers to several of Floridi\u2019s \u201copen problems in the philosophy of information\u201d.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info1020074","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,22]],"date-time":"2010-10-22T11:10:20Z","timestamp":1287745820000},"page":"74-118","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Information: A Conceptual Investigation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"1","author":[{"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Lenski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Philosophy, University of Kaiserslautern, PO Box 3049, 67653 Kaiserslautern, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9973.2004.00336.x","article-title":"Open problems in the Philosophy of Information","volume":"35","author":"Floridi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Metaphilosophy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x","article-title":"A Mathematical Theory of Communication","volume":"27","author":"Shannon","year":"1948","journal-title":"Bell. Syst. Tech. J."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Shannon, C.E., and Weaver, W. (1949). The Mathematical Theory of Communication, University of Illinois Press."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"We are well aware that, as in many fields of inquiry, this important work built on that of predecessors. Nyquist [110] studied the limits of a telephone cable for the transmission of \u2018information\u2019, and Hartley [111] developed a conceptualization of information based on \u201cphysical as contrasted with psychological considerations\u201d for studying electronic communication. See also [58] for a short survey of the development of \u2018information theory\u2019. The break-through, however, may certainly be associated with the papers mentioned above."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hintikka, K.J.J., and Suppes, P. (1970). Information and Inference, Reidel.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-010-3296-4"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"In [59] (paragraph 5.404) Peirce provides an example by considering the idea of a force. He discusses the claim of the German Physicist Kirchhoff stating that although we understand precisely the effect of force, we do not understand at all what force itself is."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Bar-Hillel, Y., and Carnap, R. (1952). An Outline of a Theory of Semantic Information, Research Laboratory for Electronics, MIT. Technical report no. 247."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popper, K.R. (1934). Logik der Forschung, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-4177-9"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1093\/bjps\/V.18.143","article-title":"Degree of Confirmation","volume":"5","author":"Popper","year":"1954","journal-title":"Brit. J. Phil. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1093\/bjps\/IV.14.147","article-title":"Semantic Information","volume":"4","author":"Carnap","year":"1953","journal-title":"Brit. J. Phil. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.2307\/2266553","article-title":"A Logical Measure Function","volume":"18","author":"Kemeny","year":"1953","journal-title":"J. Symb. Logic."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Dretske, F. (1981). Knowledge and the Flow of Information, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Barwise, K.J., and Perry, J. (1983). Situations and Attitudes, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Devlin, K. (1991). Logic and information, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barwise, J., and Seligman, J. (1997). Information Flow: The Logic of Distributed Systems, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511895968"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Floridi, L. Available online: http:\/\/philsci-archive.pitt.edu\/2537\/1\/otssi.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Floridi, L. Is Information Meaningful Data?. Available online: http:\/\/philsci-archive.pitt.edu\/2536\/1\/iimd.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Hanson, Ph. (1990). Information, Language, and Cognition, University of British Columbia Press."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"23","article-title":"Der Wahrheitsbegriff in den Sprachen der deduktiven Disziplinen","volume":"69","author":"Tarski","year":"1932","journal-title":"Anz. \u00d6sterr. Akad. Wiss. Math.-Nat. Klasse."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Natterer, P. (2003). Systematischer Kommentar zur Kritik der reinen Vernunft, de Gruyter."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Kant, I. (1900ff). 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Foundations of Logic and Mathematics, University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008319409770","article-title":"How to Pass a Turing Test: Syntactic Semantics, Natural-Language Understanding, and First-Person Cognition","volume":"9","author":"Rapaport","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Logic. Lang. Inf."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Mathematical practice, however, is sometimes different. As mathematics has a semantical foundation (cf. Tarski\u2019s conception of truth [19]), it claims intersubjective validity; see also the next section for this point. But in practice this validity is not necessarily guaranteed. There are known examples in the history of mathematics where this is not the case. See, e.g., the proof of the 0\u201d\u2019-priority method in logic [113], which initially was not really understood in the community by only studying the paper."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Cf. logic as a basis for knowledge: there must be an underlying formal language\u2014the\/a language of logic\u2014on which logic is able to operate. Furthermore, a form capable of representing elementary knowledge has to be established on which logic can operate. See Aristotle, who began the analysis of the elementary structure of something that is capable of logical deductions: it is the \u201cti kata tinos\u201d, the something about something. In Frege\u2019s conception of modern logic, concepts are considered as truth-functions themselves and thus, in a direct and immediate way, associate concepts (as 1-place relations) with knowledge."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"\u2018Private conviction\u2019 will stand for the Greek doxa as used by Plato in the context of knowledge (see [90]). For reasons that cannot be fully explained in this paper (see [107] for more details), we have chosen to use this notion instead of \u2018belief\u2019, which is more common in the tradition of the discussion of knowledge."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"To relate this epistemological view to certainty goes (at least) back to Descartes [114]. A similar understanding has also been adopted by Kant when writing \u201cEndlich hei\u00dft das sowohl subjektiv als objektiv zureichende F\u00fcrwahrhalten das Wissen.\u201d (cf. [25]; p. B 850\/A 822), and has subsequently been widely acknowledged; see, for example, [115] or [116]."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Ayer, A.J. (1956). The Problem of Knowledge, Macmillan."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Heyting, A. (1975). Collected works, North Holland."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"This characterization may also be considered a specification of what a cognitive system is. In some communities, it has become customary to denote such a system by an agent, be it human or not."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"This is the pure communication aspect associated with the dimensions of a sign. But such a communication setting may, in practice, be extended to include facets of the understanding of (at least parts of) the system\u2019s properties, the type of validity accepted therein, etc. However, this is another matter and in principle subject to general hermeneutical reflections."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"The history of mathematics has shown that this is not necessarily the case. The proof of the independency of the continuum hypothesis from the axiom system ZFC, for example, has been disputed by the mathematical community."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Troelstra, A.S., and van Dalen, D. (1988). Constructivism in Mathematics. An Introduction., North-Holland."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"189","article-title":"Proof that every full function is unifornly continuous (in Dutch)","volume":"27","author":"Brouwer","year":"1924","journal-title":"Koninkl. Nederl. Akad. Wetens. Proc. Sect. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Chalmers, A.F. (1999). What is This Thing Called Science?, Open University Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.31269\/triplec.v7i2.113","article-title":"Past, present, and future of the concept of information","volume":"7","author":"Capurro","year":"2009","journal-title":"TripleC"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Platon, Theaitet. In [117]."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"We have mentioned above that we prefer the term \u2018conviction\u2019 over \u2018belief\u2019. However, we use \u2018belief\u2019 in this section in accordance with the usual terminology in this field."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Wieland, W. (1992). Platon und die Formen des Wissens, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Platon Menon. In [117]."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1093\/analys\/23.6.121","article-title":"Is justified true belief knowledge?","volume":"23","author":"Gettier","year":"1963","journal-title":"Analysis"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Cf. Aristotle\u2019s theory of science in the second Analytic, which characterizes scientific concepts as those that are determined by definitions (see [118] Anal. post. II, 19, 100a f, Met. 1029b, Top. VI, 139a f)."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"In Lotze [119], Par. 28, it is obvious that a pure \u201csummation\u201d of features turns out to be insufficient for conceptualizations, which is demonstrated by an example from mathematics. However, Lotze is not able to provide an intrinsic characterization of functional dependencies between concepts. It should be noted that one may start with a pure summation and nevertheless end up with a system comparable to first order predicate logic. This is shown by the Formal Concept Analysis approach (see, for example, Prediger [120]). However, this approach demonstrates how much technical effort is necessary to prove this equivalence, which is by no means easily seen."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"See also Lotze [119], \u00a7\u00a728 and 110, who opposes the operator F(a,b,c,...) to a conceptualization given by a summation S=a+b+c+d... of attributes. However, Lotze is still far from providing a more precise specification of that operator at least outside mathematics. Only Frege\u2019s conception of logic (along with Tarski\u2019s definition of truth) may be seen as an implementation of this idea. However, it must be noted that Gabriel rightly hints at the most principal differences (see [119]; p. XXV)."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Cook Wilson, J. (1969). 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Front."}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/1\/2\/74\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:03:39Z","timestamp":1760220219000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/1\/2\/74"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,22]]},"references-count":123,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,12]]}},"alternative-id":["info1020074"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info1020074","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2078-2489"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,10,22]]}}}