{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T05:31:41Z","timestamp":1768973501330,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,12]],"date-time":"2020-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1583971200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001807","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado de S\u00e3o Paulo","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["017\/02325-5"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["017\/02325-5"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001807","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["88882.366274\/2019-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["88882.366274\/2019-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011875","name":"Minist\u00e9rio da Ci\u00eancia, Tecnologia, Inova\u00e7\u00f5es e Comunica\u00e7\u00f5es","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["444303\/2018-9"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["444303\/2018-9"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011875","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Criminals use online social networks for various activities by including communication, planning, and execution of criminal acts. They often employ ciphered posts using slang expressions, which are restricted to specific groups. Although literature shows advances in analysis of posts in natural language messages, such as hate discourses, threats, and more notably in the sentiment analysis; research enabling intention analysis of posts using slang expressions is still underexplored. We propose a framework and construct software prototypes for the selection of social network posts with criminal slang expressions and automatic classification of these posts according to illocutionary classes. The developed framework explores computational ontologies and machine learning (ML) techniques. Our defined Ontology of Criminal Expressions represents crime concepts in a formal and flexible model, and associates them with criminal slang expressions. This ontology is used for selecting suspicious posts and decipher them. In our solution, the criminal intention in written posts is automatically classified relying on learned models from existing posts. This work carries out a case study to evaluate the framework with 8,835,290 tweets. The obtained results show its viability by demonstrating the benefits in deciphering posts and the effectiveness of detecting user\u2019s intention in written criminal posts based on ML.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info11030154","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,12]],"date-time":"2020-03-12T12:22:51Z","timestamp":1584015771000},"page":"154","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["A Framework for Detecting Intentions of Criminal Acts in Social Media: A Case Study on Twitter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8888-5944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Resende de Mendon\u00e7a","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Master Program, UNIFACCAMP, Campo Limpo Paulista SP 13231-230, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Felix de Brito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Technology Center Renato Archer, Campinas SP 13069-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9504-496X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ferrucio","family":"de Franco Rosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Master Program, UNIFACCAMP, Campo Limpo Paulista SP 13231-230, Brazil"},{"name":"Information Technology Center Renato Archer, Campinas SP 13069-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9545-2098","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J\u00falio Cesar","family":"dos Reis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computing, UNICAMP, Campinas SP 13083-970, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3441-0887","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rodrigo","family":"Bonacin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Master Program, UNIFACCAMP, Campo Limpo Paulista SP 13231-230, Brazil"},{"name":"Information Technology Center Renato Archer, Campinas SP 13069-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9133.12249","article-title":"Terrorist Use of the Internet by the Numbers: Quantifying Behaviors, Patterns, and Processes","volume":"16","author":"Gill","year":"2017","journal-title":"Criminol. Public Policy"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Cerqueira, D., de Lima, R.S., Bueno, S., Neme, C., Ferreira, H., Coelho, D., Alves, P.P., Pinheiro, M., Astolfi, R., and Marques, D. (2020, January 18). Atlas da Viol\u00eancia, Available online: http:\/\/www.ipea.gov.br\/atlasviolencia\/download\/9\/atlas-2018."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"J\u00fanior, A.P., Veiga, E.F., Barbosa, J.L.F., Calixto, W.P., Silva, L.F.A., Campos, P.H.M., Gomes, V.M., and Castro, L.L.P. (2017, January 18\u201320). Ontology applied in the judicial sentences. Proceedings of the 2017 CHILEAN Conference on Electrical, Electronics Engineering, Information and Communication Technologies, CHILECON 2017, Pucon, Chile."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s13388-018-0032-8","article-title":"Organised crime and social media: A system for detecting, corroborating and visualising weak signals of organised crime online","volume":"7","author":"Andrews","year":"2018","journal-title":"Secur. Inform."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S.H., Santoso, A., Lee, Y.S., and Wang, J.C. (2015, January 21\u201324). Latent dirichlet allocation based blog analysis for criminal intention detection system. Proceedings of the International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology (ICCST), Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCST.2015.7389660"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1007\/s10579-018-9416-0","article-title":"SlangSD: Building, expanding and using a sentiment dictionary of slang words for short-text sentiment classification","volume":"52","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lang. Resour. Eval."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Idrees, S.M., Alam, M.A., and Agarwal, P. (2018). A study of big data and its challenges. Int. J. Inf. Technol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s41870-018-0185-1"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Matos, S.C.D. (2013). A Lingua dos \u201cFilhos Errantes da Sociedade\u201d: Discurso, Poder e Discrimina\u00e7\u00e3o nas G\u00edrias do Sistema Penitenci\u00e1rio do Interior do Tocantins. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Brasilia]."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rupa, C., and Avadhani, P.S. (2009, January 27\u201329). Message encryption scheme using cheating text. Proceedings of the 2009 Sixth International Conference on Information Technology: New Generations, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITNG.2009.232"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fatemi Moghaddam, F., Karimi, O., and Alrashdan, M.T. (2013, January 11\u201313). A comparative study of applying real-time encryption in cloud computing environments. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Cloud Networking (CloudNet), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CloudNet.2013.6710575"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michel, M.C., Carvalho, M., Crawford, H., and Esterline, A.C. (2018, January 1\u20133). Cyber Identity: Salient Trait Ontology and Computational Framework to Aid in Solving Cybercrime. Proceedings of the 2018 17th IEEE International Conference on Trust, Security And Privacy in Computing and Communications\/12th IEEE International Conference on Big Data Science And Engineering (TrustCom\/BigDataSE), New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/TrustCom\/BigDataSE.2018.00171"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Mota, A. (2020, January 18). Gloss\u00e1rio de Palavras e Express\u00f5es Utilizadas por Fac\u00e7\u00f5es Criminosas e Presos. Available online: https:\/\/docplayer.com.br\/72549176-Glossario-de-palavras-e-expressoes-utilizada-por-faccoes-criminosas-e-presos.html."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agarwal, S., and Sureka, A. (2016, January 17\u201319). However, I did not Mean It!\u2014Intent Classification of Racist Posts on Tumblr. Proceedings of the 2016 European Intelligence and Security Informatics Conference (EISIC), Uppsala, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1109\/EISIC.2016.032"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teh, P.L., Cheng, C.B., and Chee, W.M. (2018, January 23\u201325). Identifying and Categorising Profane Words in Hate Speech. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Compute and Data Analysis-ICCDA, DeKalb, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3193077.3193078"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Hartshorne, C., and WeissHarvard, P. (1935). The Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, University Press."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Searle, J.R. (1969). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139173438"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Austin, J. (1975). How to Do Things with Words, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198245537.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jo, D.W., and Kim, M.H. (2013, January 13\u201315). Web-based semantic web retrieval service for law ontology. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 10th International Conference on High Performance Computing and Communications & 2013 IEEE International Conference on Embedded and Ubiquitous Computing, Zhangjiajie, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/HPCC.and.EUC.2013.99"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osathitporn, P., Soonthornphisaj, N., and Vatanawood, W. (2017, January 26\u201328). A scheme of criminal law knowledge acquisition using ontology. Proceedings of the 18th IEEE\/ACIS International Conference on Software Engineering, Artificial Intelligence, Networking and Parallel\/Distributed Computing, SNPD 2017, Kanazawa, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/SNPD.2017.8022696"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gang, L., Yingge, M., Kejun, W., and Shaobin, H. (2014, January 18\u201320). A domain security ontology network constructing and hardening technology. Proceedings of the 2014 4th International Conference on Instrumentation and Measurement, Computer, Communication and Control, IMCCC 2014, Harbin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IMCCC.2014.167"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Latifi, S. (2019, January 1\u20133). OntoCexp: A Proposal for Conceptual Formalization of Criminal Expressions. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Information Technology-New Generations (ITNG 2019), Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, K. (2000). Semiotics in Information Systems Engineering, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511543364"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, K., and Li, W. (2014). Organisational Semiotics for Business Informatics, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203550977"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s11280-011-0155-z","article-title":"Social networks on the Internet","volume":"16","author":"Kazienko","year":"2013","journal-title":"World Wide Web"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1007\/s10796-018-9848-5","article-title":"Social Media: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly","volume":"20","author":"Dwivedi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Front."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764208321342","article-title":"The Psychology of Mass-Mediated Terrorism","volume":"52","author":"Weimann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wijeratne, S., Doran, D., Sheth, A., and Dustin, J.L. (2015, January 27\u201329). Analyzing the social media footprint of street gangs. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Intelligence and Security Informatics (ISI), Baltimore, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISI.2015.7165945"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1007\/s12117-008-9038-9","article-title":"Organised crime groups in cyberspace: A typology","volume":"11","author":"Choo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Organ. Crime"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dhouioui, Z., and Akaichi, J. (2016, January 22\u201323). Privacy Protection Protocol in Social Networks Based on Sexual Predators Detection. Proceedings of the International Conference on Internet of Things and Cloud Computing, ICC \u201916, Cambridge, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/2896387.2896448"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0501-34","article-title":"The Semantic Web","volume":"284","author":"Hendler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1006\/knac.1993.1008","article-title":"A translation approach to portable ontology specifications","volume":"5","author":"Gruber","year":"1993","journal-title":"Knowl. Acquis."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Isotani, S., and Bittencourt, I.I. (2015). Dados Abertos Conectados, NOVATEC."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"W3C OWL Working Group (2020, January 18). OWL 2 Web Ontology Language Document Overview. Available online: https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/owl2-overview\/."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1006\/ijhc.1996.0091","article-title":"Understanding, building and using ontologies","volume":"46","author":"Guarino","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Breitman, K.K. (2005). Web Sem\u00e2ntica\u2014A Internet do Futuro, LTC."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/s10489-014-0609-y","article-title":"Type-2 fuzzy ontology-based opinion mining and information extraction: A proposal to automate the hotel reservation system","volume":"42","author":"Ali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Intell."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2016.06.003","article-title":"Opinion mining based on fuzzy domain ontology and Support Vector Machine: A proposal to automate online review classification","volume":"47","author":"Ali","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Soft Comput."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25781","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2768564","article-title":"A fuzzy ontology and SVM\u2013based Web content classification system","volume":"5","author":"Ali","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2017.01.014","article-title":"Fuzzy ontology-based sentiment analysis of transportation and city feature reviews for safe traveling","volume":"77","author":"Ali","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12364","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2718038","article-title":"Merged ontology and SVM-based information extraction and recommendation system for social robots","volume":"5","author":"Ali","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2019.02.033","article-title":"Transportation sentiment analysis using word embedding and ontology-based topic modeling","volume":"174","author":"Ali","year":"2019","journal-title":"Knowl.-Based Syst."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Bonacin, R. (2004). Um Modelo de Desenvolvimento de Sistemas Para Suporte a Coopera\u00e7\u00e3o Fundamentado em Design Participativo e Semi\u00f3tica Organizacional. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Campinas]."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Costa, I.B. (2012). Lingu\u00edstica III, IESDE Brasil. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Marcondes, D. (2005). A Pragm\u00e1tica na Filosofia Contempor\u00e2nea, Jorge Zahar."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Searle, J.R., and Vanderveken, D. (1985). Foundations of Illocutionary Logic, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-3167-X_5"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonacin, R., Dos Reis, J.C., Hornung, H., and Baranauskas, M.C.C. (2012, January 25\u201327). An Ontological Model for Representing Pragmatic Aspects of Collaborative Problem Solving. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE 21st International Workshop on Enabling Technologies: Infrastructure for Collaborative Enterprises, Hammamet, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/WETICE.2012.60"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"130","article-title":"An ontological model for supporting intention-based information sharing on collaborative problem solving","volume":"3","author":"Bonacin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Collab. Enterp."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.3166\/isi.23.2.111-135","article-title":"Exploring intentions on electronic health records retrieval. Studies with collaborative scenarios","volume":"23","author":"Bonacin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ing\u00e9nierie Des Syst\u00e8mes D\u2019Information"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Bishop, C.M. (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning, Springer."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"745","article-title":"Detecting Hate Speech on Twitter Using a Convolution-GRU Based Deep Neural Network","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Advances in Information Technologies for Electromagnetics"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2017.05.038","article-title":"An approach to improve the accuracy of probabilistic classifiers for decision support systems in sentiment analysis","volume":"67","author":"Espada","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Soft Comput. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., and Wang, S. (2016, January 8\u201310). Research on Crime Degree of Internet Speech Based on Machine Learning and Dictionary. Proceedings of the 2016 3rd International Conference on Information Science and Control Engineering, ICISCE 2016, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICISCE.2016.120"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Kitchenham, B. (2004). Procedures for Performing Systematic Reviews, Keele University. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teodorescu, H.N., and Saharia, N. (2015, January 14\u201317). An internet slang annotated dictionary and its use in assessing message attitude and sentiments. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Speech Technology and Human-Computer Dialogue, SpeD, Bucharest, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/SPED.2015.7343084"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21725","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-017-5531-y","article-title":"Sentiment-based and hashtag-based Chinese online bursty event detection","volume":"77","author":"Xiaomei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Golbeck, J. (2018). Bridging the Gaps: Multi Task Learning for Domain Transfer of Hate Speech Detection. Online {Harassment}, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-78583-7"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hagen, L., Harrison, T.M., Uzuner, \u00d6., Fake, T., Lamanna, D., and Kotfila, C. (2015, January 27\u201330). Introducing textual analysis tools for policy informatics. Proceedings of the 16th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research-dg.o \u201915, Phoenix, AR, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2757401.2757421"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuhr, N., Quaresma, P., Gon\u00e7alves, T., Larsen, B., Balog, K., Macdonald, C., Cappellato, L., and Ferro, N. (2016). A Test Collection for Research on Depression and Language Use. Experimental IR Meets Multilinguality, Multimodality, and Interaction, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-44564-9"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silberztein, M., Atigui, F., Kornyshova, E., M\u00e9tais, E., and Meziane, F. (2018). Automatic Identification and Classification of Misogynistic Language on Twitter. Natural Language Processing and Information Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-91947-8"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1162\/coli_a_00336","article-title":"Sarcasm Analysis Using Conversation Context","volume":"44","author":"Ghosh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Linguist."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2014.05.021","article-title":"Extracting relevant knowledge for the detection of sarcasm and nastiness in the social web","volume":"69","author":"Justo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Knowl.-Based Syst."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Appling, D.S., Briscoe, E.J., and Hutto, C.J. (2015, January 18\u201322). Discriminative Models for Predicting Deception Strategies. Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World Wide Web\u2014WWW \u201915 Companion, Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1145\/2740908.2742575"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barreira, R., Pinheiro, V., and Furtado, V. (2017, January 22\u201324). A framework for digital forensics analysis based on semantic role labeling. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Intelligence and Security Informatics: Security and Big Data, ISI 2017, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISI.2017.8004876"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levitan, S.I., An, G., Wang, M., Mendels, G., Hirschberg, J., Levine, M., and Rosenberg, A. (2015, January 9\u201313). Cross-Cultural Production and Detection of Deception from Speech. Proceedings of the 2015 ACM on Workshop on Multimodal Deception Detection, WMDD \u201915, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2823465.2823468"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raisi, E., and Huang, B. (, January July). Cyberbullying Detection with Weakly Supervised Machine Learning. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE\/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining 2017\u2014ASONAM \u201917, Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1145\/3110025.3110049"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pandey, R., Purohit, H., Stabile, B., and Grant, A. (2018, January 3\u20136). Distributional Semantics Approach to Detect Intent in Twitter Conversations on Sexual Assaults. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/WIC\/ACM International Conference on Web Intelligence, WI 2018, Santiago, Chile.","DOI":"10.1109\/WI.2018.00-80"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2017.07.040","article-title":"Early detection of deception and aggressiveness using profile-based representations","volume":"89","author":"Escalante","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mundra, S., Mannarswamy, S., Sinha, M., and Sen, A. (2017, January 9\u201311). Embedding Learning of Figurative Phrases for Emotion Classification in Micro-Blog Texts. Proceedings of the Fourth ACM IKDD Conferences on Data Sciences, CODS \u201917, Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1145\/3041823.3041828"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, M., and Sarma, K.K. (2016, January 16\u201318). Learning aided mood and dialect recognition using telephonic speech. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Accessibility to Digital World, ICADW 2016, Guwahati, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICADW.2016.7942534"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aghababaei, S., and Makrehchi, M. (2016, January 13\u201316). Mining Social Media Content for Crime Prediction. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE\/WIC\/ACM International Conference on Web Intelligence, WI 2016, Omaha, NE, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WI.2016.0089"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, G., and Rayz, J. (2018, January 7\u201310). Ontological Detection of Phishing Emails. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), Miyazaki, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2018.00486"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su\u00e1rez-Serrato, P., Vel\u00e1zquez Richards, E.I., and Yazdani, M. (2018, January 2\u20133). Socialbots Supporting Human Rights. Proceedings of the 2018 AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society\u2014AIES \u201918, Orleans, LA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3278721.3278734"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lundquist, D., Zhang, K., and Ouksel, A. (2014, January 8\u201312). Ontology-driven cyber-security threat assessment based on sentiment analysis of network activity data. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Cloud and Autonomic Computing, ICCAC 2014, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCAC.2014.42"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Maynard, D., Bontcheva, K., and Augenstein, I. (2020, March 10). Available online: https:\/\/tianjun.me\/static\/essay_resources\/RelationExtraction\/Paper\/NaturalLanguageProcessingfortheSemanticWeb.pdf."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/S0950-7051(01)00134-4","article-title":"What Semiotics can and cannot do for HCI","volume":"14","author":"Andersen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Knowl.-Based Syst."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"158","article-title":"Foundations of the theory of signs. International encyclopedia of unified science, vol. 1, no. 2. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1938, vii + 59 pp","volume":"3","author":"Langford","year":"1938","journal-title":"J. Symb. Log."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Horrocks, I., Patel-Schneider, P.F., Boley, H., Tabet, S., Grosof, B., and Dean, M. (2020, January 18). SWRL: A Semantic Web Rule Language Combining OWL and RuleML. Available online: https:\/\/www.w3.org\/Submission\/SWRL\/."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Theophilo, A. (2020, January 18). Twitter Reader\u2014Python Code. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/theocjr\/twitter-reader."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Noy, N.F., and Mcguinness, D. (2001). Ontology Development 101: A Guide to Creating Your First, Ontology. Knowl. Syst. Lab., 32, Available online: http:\/\/www.ksl.stanford.edu\/people\/dlm\/papers\/ontology-tutorial-noy-mcguinness-abstract.html."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Oliveira Rodrigues, C.M., De Freitas, F.L.G., and Da Silva Oliveira, I.J. (2017, January 2\u20135). An ontological approach to the three-phase method of imposing penalties in the Brazilian criminal code. Proceedings of the 2017 Brazilian Conference on Intelligent Systems, BRACIS 2017, Uberlandia, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/BRACIS.2017.21"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2017.08.109","article-title":"Towards a Legal Rule-Based System Grounded on the Integration of Criminal Domain Ontology and Rules","volume":"112","author":"Naja","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dhouib, K., and Gargouri, F. (2013, January 24\u201326). Legal application ontology in Arabic. Proceedings of the 2013 4th International Conference on Information and Communication Technology and Accessibility, ICTA 2013, Hammamet, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTA.2013.6815298"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Mendon\u00e7a, R.R., Rosa, F.d.F., and Bonacin, R. (2020, January 18). OntoCexp\u2014Ontology of Criminal Expressions. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/ricardoresende\/OntoCexp."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Mendon\u00e7a, R.R., Rosa, F.d.F., and Bonacin, R. (2020, January 18). OntoCexp\u2014Ontology of Criminal Expressions. Available online: https:\/\/webprotege.stanford.edu\/#projects\/37030aff-54c4-491b-b3df-063d0f434bbf\/edit\/Classes."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Hartmann, N., Fonseca, E., Shulby, C., Treviso, M., Rodrigues, J., and Aluisio, S. (2017). Portuguese word embeddings: Evaluating on word analogies and natural language tasks. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pennington, J., Socher, R., and Manning, C. (2014, January 25\u201329). Glove: Global Vectors for Word Representation. Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), Doha, Qatar.","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/D14-1162"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Mikolov, T., Chen, K., Corrado, G.S., and Dean, J. (2013). Efficient Estimation of Word Representations in Vector Space. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ling, W., Dyer, C., Black, A.W., and Trancoso, I. (June, January 31). Two\/Too Simple Adaptations of Word2Vec for Syntax Problems. Proceedings of the 2015 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Denver, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/N15-1142"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bojanowski, P., Grave, E., Joulin, A., and Mikolov, T. (2016). Enriching Word Vectors with Subword Information. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1162\/tacl_a_00051"},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"2825","article-title":"Scikit-learn: Machine Learning in Python","volume":"12","author":"Pedregosa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.953","article-title":"SMOTE: Synthetic minority over-sampling technique","volume":"16","author":"Chawla","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Artif. Intell. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"1","article-title":"Imbalanced-learn: A Python Toolbox to Tackle the Curse of Imbalanced Datasets in Machine Learning","volume":"18","author":"Nogueira","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Searle, J.R. (1975). Indirect speech acts. Speech Acts, Brill.","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004368811_004"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Horridge, M., Aranguren, M.E., Mortensen, J., Musen, M., and Noy, N.F. (2012, January 11\u201315). Ontology Design Pattern Language Expressivity Requirements. Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Ontology Patterns, WOP\u201912, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dos Reis, J.C., Bonacin, R., and Baranauskas, M.C.C. (2017, January 21\u201323). Recognizing Intentions in Free Text Messages: Studies with Portuguese Language. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 26th International Conference on Enabling Technologies: Infrastructure for Collaborative Enterprises (WETICE), Poznan, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/WETICE.2017.60"}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/11\/3\/154\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:06:25Z","timestamp":1760173585000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/11\/3\/154"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,12]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]}},"alternative-id":["info11030154"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info11030154","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,12]]}}}