{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T10:30:51Z","timestamp":1776681051369,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,27]],"date-time":"2020-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1587945600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"AOARD, USAF- The Asian office of Aerospace R&amp;D (AOARD) a part of United States Air Force (USAF)","award":["FA2386-16-1-0003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA2386-16-1-0003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Time crystal was conceived in the 1970s as an autonomous engine made of only clocks to explain the life-like features of a virus. Later, time crystal was extended to living cells like neurons. The brain controls most biological clocks that regenerate the living cells continuously. Most cognitive tasks and learning in the brain run by periodic clock-like oscillations. Can we integrate all cognitive tasks in terms of running clocks of the hardware? Since the existing concept of time crystal has only one clock with a singularity point, we generalize the basic idea of time crystal so that we could bond many clocks in a 3D architecture. Harvesting inside phase singularity is the key. Since clocks reset continuously in the brain\u2013body system, during reset, other clocks take over. So, we insert clock architecture inside singularity resembling brain components bottom-up and top-down. Instead of one clock, the time crystal turns to a composite, so it is poly-time crystal. We used century-old research on brain rhythms to compile the first hardware-free pure clock reconstruction of the human brain. Similar to the global effort on connectome, a spatial reconstruction of the brain, we advocate a global effort for more intricate mapping of all brain clocks, to fill missing links with respect to the brain\u2019s temporal map. Once made, reverse engineering the brain would remain a mere engineering challenge.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info11050238","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,28]],"date-time":"2020-04-28T05:05:32Z","timestamp":1588050332000},"page":"238","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["A Self-Operating Time Crystal Model of the Human Brain: Can We Replace Entire Brain Hardware with a 3D Fractal Architecture of Clocks Alone?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7274-6683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pushpendra","family":"Singh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Amity School of Applied Science, Amity University Rajasthan, Kant Kalwar, NH-11C, Jaipur Delhi Highway, Jaipur, Rajasthan 303007, India"},{"name":"International Center for Materials and Nanoarchitectronics (MANA), Research Center for Advanced Measurement and Characterization (RCAMC), National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 3050047, Japan"}]},{"given":"Komal","family":"Saxena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Center for Materials and Nanoarchitectronics (MANA), Research Center for Advanced Measurement and Characterization (RCAMC), National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 3050047, Japan"},{"name":"Microwave Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics and Computer Science, Dayalbag Educational Institute, Agra, Uttar Pradesh 282005, India"}]},{"given":"Anup","family":"Singhania","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemical Science and Technology Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, NEIST, Jorhat, Assam 785006, India"},{"name":"Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-NEIST Campus, Jorhat, Assam 785006, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5102-9482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pathik","family":"Sahoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Center for Materials and Nanoarchitectronics (MANA), Research Center for Advanced Measurement and Characterization (RCAMC), National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 3050047, Japan"},{"name":"Chemical Science and Technology Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, NEIST, Jorhat, Assam 785006, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9104-517X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Subrata","family":"Ghosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemical Science and Technology Division, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology, NEIST, Jorhat, Assam 785006, India"},{"name":"Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-NEIST Campus, Jorhat, Assam 785006, India"}]},{"given":"Rutuja","family":"Chhajed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Center for Materials and Nanoarchitectronics (MANA), Research Center for Advanced Measurement and Characterization (RCAMC), National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 3050047, Japan"}]},{"given":"Kanad","family":"Ray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amity School of Applied Science, Amity University Rajasthan, Kant Kalwar, NH-11C, Jaipur Delhi Highway, Jaipur, Rajasthan 303007, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7025-0265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daisuke","family":"Fujita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Center for Materials and Nanoarchitectronics (MANA), Research Center for Advanced Measurement and Characterization (RCAMC), National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 3050047, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8823-4914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anirban","family":"Bandyopadhyay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Center for Materials and Nanoarchitectronics (MANA), Research Center for Advanced Measurement and Characterization (RCAMC), National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 3050047, Japan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Moore-Ede, M., and Czeisler, C.A. (1984). Exploratory data analysis: Published records of uncued human sleep and waking. Mathematical Modeling of Circadian Systems, Raven Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winfree, A. (2001). Biological Rhythm Research. The Geometry of Biological Time, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-3484-3"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"090402","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.117.090402","article-title":"Floquet time crystals","volume":"117","author":"Else","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Best, E.N. (1976). Null Space and Phrase Resetting Curves for the Hodgkin-Huxley Equations. [Ph.D. Thesis, Purdue University]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1126\/science.131.3402.728","article-title":"Resetting the sporulation rhythm in Pilobolus with short light flashes of high intensity","volume":"131","author":"Bruce","year":"1960","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"030401","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.118.030401","article-title":"Discrete time crystals: Rigidity, criticality, and realizations","volume":"118","author":"Yao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21413","article-title":"Observation of a discrete time crystal","volume":"543","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2789(84)90279-3","article-title":"Singular filaments organize chemical waves in three dimensions. 4: Wave taxonomy","volume":"13","author":"Winfree","year":"1984","journal-title":"Physica D"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1080\/09291017509359480","article-title":"Phase dependent phase shifts induced by pyruvate and acetaldehyde in oscillating NADH of yeast cells","volume":"6","author":"Betz","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Interdiscipl. Cycle Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-8049-4_1","article-title":"A Brain-like Computer Made of Time Crystal: Could a Metric of Prime Alone Replace a User and Alleviate Programming Forever?","volume":"761","author":"Reddy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stud. Comput. Intell."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"862","article-title":"Cycloidal circulation of spiral waves in an excitable medium","volume":"31","author":"Zykov","year":"1986","journal-title":"Biofizika"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"127","article-title":"Computer simulation and investigation of spiral autowave stability","volume":"1","author":"Zykov","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Nonlin. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3390\/sym3030389","article-title":"Is the notion of time really fundamental?","volume":"3","author":"Girelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Symmetry"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1515\/znc-1973-11-1218","article-title":"Early and late subjective night phases of the Drosophila pseudoobscura circadian rhythm require different energies of blue light for phase shifting","volume":"28","author":"Chandrashekaran","year":"1973","journal-title":"Z. Naturforsch."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.1401720203","article-title":"The relationship between the intensity of light pulses and the extent of phase shifts of the circadian rhythm in the exclusion rate of Drosophila pseudoobscura","volume":"172","author":"Chandrashekaran","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Mayer, R.A. (2011). Fractal and multi-fractal time series. Mathematics of Complexity and Dynamical Systems, Springer."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pc.39.100188.001413","article-title":"Fractal time in condensed matter","volume":"39","author":"Shlesinger","year":"1988","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Agrawal, L., Ghosh, S., Ghosh, B., Ray, K., Sahu, S., Fujita, D., and Bandyopadhyay, A. (2016). Replacing Turing tape with a Fractal tape: A new information theory, associated mechanics and decision making without computing. Consciousness, Integrating Indian and Western Perspective, New Age Books. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7008196","article-title":"Clocked cell cycle clocks","volume":"211","author":"Adams","year":"1981","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.3390\/info5010028","article-title":"Design and operation of a brain like computer: A new class of frequency-fractal computing using wireless communication in a supramolecular organic, inorganic systems","volume":"5","author":"Ghosh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Information"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201302111","article-title":"Nano Molecular-platform: A protocol to write energy transmission program inside a molecule for bio-inspired supramolecular engineering","volume":"24","author":"Ghosh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Func. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physleta.2006.06.081","article-title":"Cavity-QED based unconventional geometric phase dc gates with bichromatic field modes","volume":"359","author":"Joshi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Phys. Lett. A"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.72.1004","article-title":"Geometric phases and hidden symmetries in simple resonators","volume":"72","author":"Lauber","year":"1994","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2839","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.36.002839","article-title":"Berry phase magnification in optical microcoil resonators","volume":"36","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1585","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.85.1585","article-title":"Geometric Phases and Multiple Degeneracies in Harmonic Resonators","volume":"85","author":"Pistolesi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.3390\/fractalfract4020011","article-title":"Fractal, scale free electromagnetic resonance of a single brain extracted microtubule nanowire, a single tubulin protein and a single neuron","volume":"4","author":"Komal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fractal Fract."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Menaker, M. (1971). Metabolic control of temperature compensation in the circadian rhythm of Euglena gracilis. Biochronometry, National Academy of Sciences."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-1642-5_63","article-title":"Complete Dielectric Resonator Model of Human Brain from MRI Data: A Journey from Connectome Neural Branching to Single Protein","volume":"Volume 478","author":"Ray","year":"2019","journal-title":"Engineering Vibration, Communication and Information Processing"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160402","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.109.160402","article-title":"Classical time crystals","volume":"109","author":"Shapere","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219635216500333","article-title":"Inventing atomic resolution scanning dielectric microscopy to see a single protein complex operation live at resonance in a neuron without touching or adulterating the cell","volume":"15","author":"Agrawal","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Integr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219635216500321","article-title":"Inventing a co-axial atomic resolution patch clamp to study a single resonating protein complex and ultra-low power communication deep inside a living neuron cell","volume":"15","author":"Ghosh","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Integr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, P., Sahu, P., Sahu, S., Ghosh, S., Fujita, D., and Bandyopadhyay, A. (2020). A space-time-topology-prime, stTS metric for a self-operating mathematical universe uses Dodecanion geometric algebra of 2-20 D complex vectors. LNNS Springer, in press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-7561-7_1"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, P., Sahu, P., Sahu, S., Ghosh, S., Fujita, D., and Bandyopadhyay, A. (2020). Quaternion, octonion to dodecanion manifold: Stereographic projections from infinity lead to a self-operating mathematical universe. AISC Springer, in press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-5414-8_5"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.11.000709","article-title":"Metamaterial endoscope for magnetic field transfer: Near field imaging with magnetic wires","volume":"11","author":"Wiltshire","year":"2003","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1366\/12-06707","article-title":"On the Nature of the Evanescent Wave","volume":"26","author":"Milosevic","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"105","article-title":"Polarization effects in the diffraction of electromagnetic waves: The role of disclinations","volume":"387","author":"Nye","year":"1983","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Rozenfel\u2019d, A.B. (1988). A History of Non-Euclidean Geometry: Evolution of the Concept of a Geometric Space, Springer."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02985662","article-title":"On Quaternions and Octonions: Their Geometry, Arithmetic, and Symmetry","volume":"26","author":"Dixon","year":"2004","journal-title":"Math. Intell."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Brodmann, K. (2020, February 28). Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde. Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1909. In Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=10%E2%80%9320_system_(EEG)&oldid=922279483."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Garey, L.J. (2006). Brodmann\u2019s: Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex, Springer."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bandyopadhyay, A. (2020). Fractal mechanics is not quantum but original: Geometric algebra for a dodecanion. Nanobrain. The Making of an Artificial Brain from a Time Crystal, Taylor & Francis Inc.. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429107771-4"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2789(89)90047-X","article-title":"Analysis of meandering in Zykov-kinetics","volume":"40","author":"Lugosi","year":"1989","journal-title":"Physica D"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"181","article-title":"Cell communication by periodic cyclic-AMP pulses","volume":"272","author":"Gerisch","year":"1975","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Carter, R. (2014). The Human Brain Book: An Illustrated Guide to its Structure, Function, and Disorders, DK. Available online: https:\/\/www.dk.com."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buzs\u00e1ki, G. (2006). The Rythms of the Brain, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195301069.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Ghosh, S., Fujita, D., and Bandyopadhyay, A. (2019). Universal Geometric-Musical Language for Big Data Processing in an Assembly of Clocking Resonators. (WO 2019\/026983A1), International Patent."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"2326","article-title":"Human circadian rhythms: A multioscillatory system","volume":"35","author":"Aschoff","year":"1976","journal-title":"Fed. Proc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1145\/322123.322138","article-title":"Relations among Complexity Measures","volume":"26","author":"Pippinger","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. ACM"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-51237-3_10","article-title":"Nearly linear time","volume":"363","author":"Gurevich","year":"1989","journal-title":"Lect. Notes Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00685221","article-title":"Circadian oscillators, cell cycles, and singularities: Light perturbations of the free-running rhythm of cell division in Euglena","volume":"155","author":"Malinowski","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-5193(67)90051-3","article-title":"Biological rhythrns and the behavior of populations of coupled oscillators","volume":"16","author":"Winfree","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Sarhangi, R. (2000). Visualization: From Biology to Culture. Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music, and Science, Brent Collins."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0666-60","article-title":"River Meanders","volume":"214","author":"Leopold","year":"1966","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1126\/science.163.3868.688","article-title":"Action spectra for phase shifts of a circadian rhythm in Drosophila","volume":"163","author":"Frank","year":"1969","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01273747","article-title":"Isochrons and phaseless sets","volume":"1","author":"Guckenheimer","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Math. Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Sahu, S., Fujita, D., and Bandyopadhyay, A. (2015). An Inductor Made of Arrayed Capacitors. (No. 9019685B2), U.S. Patent, Available online: https:\/\/patents.google.com\/patent\/EP2562776A1\/de."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.12.018","article-title":"Alpha-Beta and Gamma Rhythms Subserve Feedback and Feedforward Influences among Human Visual Cortical Areas","volume":"89","author":"Michalareas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1088\/0954-898X_10_4_201","article-title":"Temporal aspects of neuronal coding in the retina and lateral geniculate","volume":"10","author":"Victor","year":"1999","journal-title":"Netw. Comput. Neural Syst."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1097\/00004691-199405000-00002","article-title":"Auditory Neurophysiology","volume":"11","author":"Moller","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1126\/science.274.5289.976","article-title":"Distinct mechanisms for synchronization and temporal patterning of odor-encoding neural assemblies","volume":"274","author":"MacLeod","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Rose, J.E., and Mountcastle, V. (1959). Touch and kinesis. Hand-Book of Physiology: Neurophysiology, American Physiological Society."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00040.2015","article-title":"Decoding tactile afferent activity to obtain an estimate of instantaneous force and torque applied to the fingerpad","volume":"114","author":"Khamis","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Dawson, W.W., and Enoch, J.M. (1984). The sensory detection of vibrations. Foundations of Sensory Science, Springer."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salanki, J. (1968). Electrical properties and temporal organization in oscillatory neurons. Neurobiology of Invertebrates, Plenum.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-8618-0"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1080\/00275514.1965.12018269","article-title":"The rhythms of three clock mutants of Ascobolusimmersus","volume":"57","author":"Berliner","year":"1965","journal-title":"Mycologia"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123701","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4793995","article-title":"Multi-level memory-switching properties of a single brain microtubule","volume":"102","author":"Sahu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2014.04.006","article-title":"Prime Indel: Four-prime-number genetic code for indel decryption and sequence read alignment","volume":"436","author":"Lam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5193(05)80382-0","article-title":"Prime numbers and the amino acid code: Analogy in coding properties","volume":"151","author":"Yan","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.21912","article-title":"Tracer coupling patterns of the ganglion cell subtypes in the mouse retina","volume":"512","author":"Volgyi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(81)90046-8","article-title":"Amacrine cells of the cat retina","volume":"21","author":"Kolb","year":"1981","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"184","article-title":"Three amacrine cells of the cat retina: Morphology and intraeellular responses","volume":"20","author":"Kolb","year":"1981","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthal. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.903180204","article-title":"The neurons of the human retina: A Golgi study","volume":"318","author":"Kolb","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.09.029","article-title":"Reconstruction and Simulation of Neocortical Microcircuitry","volume":"163","author":"Markram","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2005.1623","article-title":"The cortical column: A structure without a function","volume":"360","author":"Horton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buzs\u00e0ki, G., Llin\u00e1s, R.R., Singer, W., Berthoz, A., and Christen, Y. (1994). Oscillatory and intermittent synchrony in the hippocampus: Relevance for memory trace formation. Temporal Coding in the Brain, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-85148-3_9"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1038\/nature17183","article-title":"Bidirectional electromagnetic control of the hypothalamus regulates feeding and metabolism","volume":"531","author":"Stanley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-0173(84)90017-1","article-title":"The thalamus as a neuronal oscillator","volume":"8","author":"Steriade","year":"1984","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1126\/science.493975","article-title":"Phase resetting and annihilation of pacemaker activity in cardiac tissues","volume":"206","author":"Jalife","year":"1979","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1038\/335311a0","article-title":"The functional logic of cortical connections","volume":"335","author":"Zeki","year":"1988","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schahmann, J.D., and Pandya, D.N. (2006). Fiber Pathways of the Brain, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195104233.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.3171\/2012.3.JNS12328","article-title":"Nerve transfers for the restoration of hand function after spinal cord injury","volume":"117","author":"Mackinnon","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e33468","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.33468","article-title":"Large-scale replication study reveals a limit on probabilistic prediction in language comprehension","volume":"7","author":"Nieuwland","year":"2018","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.0010042","article-title":"The human connectome: A structural description of the human brain","volume":"1","author":"Sporns","year":"2005","journal-title":"PLoS Comput. Biol."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Hagmann, P. (2005). From Diffusion MRI to Brain Connectomeics. [Ph.D. Thesis, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne]."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/S0361-9230(99)00161-6","article-title":"Lapique\u2019s introduction of the integrate-and-fire model neuron","volume":"50","author":"Abbott","year":"1999","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(00)80819-3","article-title":"The role of neural mechanisms of attention in solving the binding problem","volume":"24","author":"Reynolds","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1232251","article-title":"Actin, spectrin and associated proteins form a periodic cytoskeleton structure in axons","volume":"339","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2013.02.050","article-title":"Atomic water channel controlling remarkable properties of a single brain microtubule: Correlating single protein to its supramolecular assembly","volume":"47","author":"Sahu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7303","DOI":"10.1038\/srep07303","article-title":"Live visualizations of single isolated tubulin protein self-assembly via tunneling current: Effect of elctromagnetic pumping during spontaneous growth of microtubule","volume":"4","author":"Sahu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1038\/35065745","article-title":"Synchronization and rhythmic processes in physiology","volume":"410","author":"Glass","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2019, October 21). 10\u201320 System (EEG). Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/10%E2%80%9320_system_(EEG)."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"(2020, April 14). Electroencephalography. Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electroencephalography."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00434","article-title":"Structural Plasticity on the SpiNNaker Many-Core Neuromorphic System","volume":"12","author":"Bogdan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4244","article-title":"Using goal-driven deep learning models to understand sensory cortex","volume":"19","author":"Yamins","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physrep.2008.11.002","article-title":"Black holes, qubits and octonions","volume":"471","author":"Leron","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/0959-4388(95)80012-3","article-title":"Temporal structure in spatially organized neuronal ensembles: A role for interneuronal networks","volume":"5","author":"Chrobak","year":"1995","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamber, H.W. (2009). Quantum Gravitation\u2014The Feynman Path Integral Approach, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-85293-3"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Bastin, T. (1971). Angular momentum: An approach to combinatorial spacetime. Quantum Theory and Beyond, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Welsh, D.J.A. (1969). Applications of negative dimensional tensors. Combinatorial Mathematics and Its Application, Proceeding Conference."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/S0393-0440(02)00148-1","article-title":"Generalized lattice gauge theory, spin foams and state sum invariants","volume":"46","author":"Oeckl","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geom. Phys."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2017.00048","article-title":"Cliques of Neurons Bound into Cavities Provide a Missing Link between Structure and Function","volume":"11","author":"Reimann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Comput. Neurosci."}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/11\/5\/238\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:09:18Z","timestamp":1760364558000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/11\/5\/238"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,27]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5]]}},"alternative-id":["info11050238"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info11050238","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,27]]}}}