{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T22:11:42Z","timestamp":1780524702058,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]],"date-time":"2023-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"SESAR Joint Undertaking","award":["892036"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["892036"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The drone market\u2019s growth poses a serious threat to the negligent, illicit, or non-cooperative use of drones, especially in airports and their surroundings. Effective protection of an airport against drone intrusions should guarantee mandatory safety levels but should also rely on a resilience-driven operational concept aimed at managing the intrusions without necessarily implying the closure of the airport. The concept faces both safety-related and security-related threats and is based on the definitions of: (i) new roles and responsibilities; (ii) a set of operational phases, accomplished by means of specific technological building blocks; (iii) a new operational procedure blending smoothly with existing aerodrome procedures in place. The paper investigates the evaluation of such a resilience-driven operational concept tailored to drone-intrusion features, airport features, and current operations. The proposed concept was evaluated by applying it to a concrete case study related to Milan Malpensa Airport. The evaluation was carried out by real-time simulations and event tree analysis, exploiting the implementation of specific simulation tools and the assessment of resilience-oriented metrics. The achieved results show the effectiveness of the proposed operational concept and elicit further requirements for future counter-drone systems in airports.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info14040239","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,14]],"date-time":"2023-04-14T01:32:03Z","timestamp":1681435923000},"page":"239","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Evaluation of a Resilience-Driven Operational Concept to Manage Drone Intrusions in Airports"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1332-4234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Domenico","family":"Pascarella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Safety and Security Department, CIRA\u2014Italian Aerospace Research Centre, Via Maiorise, 81043 Capua, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0701-0549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriella","family":"Gigante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Safety and Security Department, CIRA\u2014Italian Aerospace Research Centre, Via Maiorise, 81043 Capua, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela","family":"Vozella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Safety and Security Department, CIRA\u2014Italian Aerospace Research Centre, Via Maiorise, 81043 Capua, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maurizio","family":"Sodano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Soul Software\u2014Italian Software Factory, Viale S. Modestino 33, 83013 Mercogliano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Ippolito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Soul Software\u2014Italian Software Factory, Viale S. Modestino 33, 83013 Mercogliano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Bieber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ONERA\/DTIS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, BP 74025, 31055 Toulouse Cedex, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Dubot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ONERA\/DTIS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, BP 74025, 31055 Toulouse Cedex, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edgar","family":"Martinavarro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unmanned Aerial Platforms Department, INTA\u2014National Institute of Aerospace Technology, 28850 Torrej\u00f3n de Ardoz, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1186\/2194-3206-1-15","article-title":"Agent-based modeling and simulation of emergent behavior in air transportation","volume":"1","author":"Bouarfa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Complex Adapt. Syst. Model."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Leonhardt, J., Macchi, L., Hollnagel, E., and Kirwan, B. (2009). A White Paper on Resilience Engineering for ATM, EUROCONTROL."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Hollnagel, E., Woods, D.D., and Leveson, N. (2006). Resilience Engineering: Concepts and Precepts, CRC Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Gluchshenko, O., and Foerster, P. (2013, January 10\u201313). Performance Based Approach to Investigate Resilience and Robustness of an ATM System. Proceedings of the Tenth USA\/Europe Air Traffic Management Research and Development Seminar (ATM Seminar 2013), Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2023, January 16). Environmental Science Associates, Defining Airport Resilience. Available online: https:\/\/esassoc.com\/news-and-ideas\/2021\/08\/defining-airport-resilience."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shelley, A. (2019). Drone Registration Will Not Prevent Another Gatwick. SSRN.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3378277"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (March 2021). Drone Incident Management at Aerodromes. Part 1: The Challenge of Unauthorised Drones in the Surroundings of Aerodromes, EASA. Available online: https:\/\/www.easa.europa.eu\/en\/downloads\/125405\/en."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (December 2020). The European Plan for Aviation Safety (EPAS 2021\u20132025), Volume I: Introduction and Strategy, EASA. Available online: https:\/\/www.easa.europa.eu\/en\/downloads\/123562\/en."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (March 2021). Drone Incident Management at Aerodromes. Part 2: Guidance and Recommendations, EASA."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (March 2021). Drone Incident Management at Aerodromes. Part 3: Resources and Practical Tools, EASA."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2023, January 16). ASPRID (Airport System PRotection from Intruding Drones). Available online: https:\/\/www.asprid.eu\/."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2023, January 16). ASPRID Presentation in Drones Beyond 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=7bebCiZtNYs."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pascarella, D., Gigante, G., Nebula, F., Vozella, A., Redondo de la Mata, E., Jim\u00e9nez Roncero, F.J., and Martinavarro, E. (2021, January 1\u20133). Historical Data Analysis and Modelling for Drone Intrusions in Airports. Proceedings of the 2021 13th International Conference on Electronics, Computers and Artificial Intelligence (ECAI), Pitesti, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECAI52376.2021.9515046"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pascarella, D., Gigante, G., Vozella, A., Bieber, P., Dubot, T., Martinavarro, E., Barraco, G., and Li Calzi, G. (2022). A Methodological Framework for the Risk Assessment of Drone Intrusions in Airports. Aerospace, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace9120747"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"6622031","article-title":"Resilience Modeling Method of Airport Network Affected by Global Public Health Events","volume":"2021","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Math. Probl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jairtraman.2014.09.011","article-title":"Applying complexity science to air traffic management","volume":"42","author":"Cook","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Air Transp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2023, January 16). Resilience2050. Available online: https:\/\/resilience2050.org."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Gluchshenko, O., and Foerster, P. (2013). Setting the Basis\u2014Defining Resilience in the Organization of ATM, Seventh Framework Programme of the European Union. Available online: https:\/\/s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com\/innaxis-comm\/RESILIENCE2050\/D1.3+Resilience2050.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"The Innaxis Foundation and Research Institute (2013). Resilience Multilayer Representationz, Seventh Framework Programme of the European Union. Available online: https:\/\/s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com\/innaxis-comm\/RESILIENCE2050\/D3.1+Resilience2050.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jairtraman.2016.03.014","article-title":"Resilience management problem in ATM systems as a shortest path problem","volume":"56 Pt A","author":"Filippone","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Air Transp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Studies in Computational Intelligence, Novais, P., Camacho, D., Analide, C., El Fallah Seghrouchni, A., and Badica, C. (2016). Intelligent Distributed Computing IX, Springer."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment (EUROCAE) (March 2021). ED-286. Operational Services and Environment Definition for Counter-UAS in Controlled Airspace, EUROCAE."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Airports Council International (ACI) Europe (April 2020). Drones in the Airport Environment: Concept of Operations & Industry Guidance, ACI Europe."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.3926\/jairm.127","article-title":"The UAVs threat to airport security: Risk analysis and mitigation","volume":"9","author":"Pyrgies","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Airl. Airpt. Manag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lykou, G., Moustakas, D., and Gritzalis, D. (2020). Defending Airports from UAS: A Survey on Cyber-Attacks and Counter-Drone Sensing Technologies. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20123537"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castrillo, V.U., Manco, A., Pascarella, D., and Gigante, G. (2022). A Review of Counter-UAS Technologies for Cooperative Defensive Teams of Drones. Drones, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones6030065"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168671","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3023473","article-title":"Protect Your Sky: A Survey of Counter Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Systems","volume":"8","author":"Kang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2023, January 16). Guide to the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK)\u2014Operational Concept (Glossary). Available online: https:\/\/www.sebokwiki.org\/wiki\/Operational_Concept_(glossary)."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Object Management Group (OMG) (December 2013). Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN), OBM. Available online: https:\/\/www.omg.org\/spec\/BPMN\/2.0.2\/PDF."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Manfredi, G., and Jestin, Y. (2018, January 26\u201329). An Introduction to Fast Time Simulations for RPAS Collision Avoidance System Evaluation. Proceedings of the ICRAT 2018, 8th International Conference for Research in Air Transportation, Barcelona, Spain."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"ASPRID Consortium (2022). DEMO Software for Validation, SESAR Joint Undertaking. Available online: https:\/\/www.asprid.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/D3.3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2023, January 16). eArts (En-Route Aerodrome Real Time Simulator). Available online: https:\/\/www.soulsoftware.it\/html\/en\/earts-1."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2023, January 16). ASPRID Demo Web App. Available online: https:\/\/aspriddemo.web.app."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Le Fevre, M., G\u00f6lz, B., Flohr, R., Stelkens-Kobsch, T., and Verhoogt, T. (2017). SecRAM 2.0 Security Risk Assessment Methodology for SESAR 2020, SESAR Joint Undertaking. 02.00.00."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Cordero, J.M., Garc\u00eda-Ovies, I., Verdonk Gallego, C., S\u00e1nchez-Palomo Berm\u00fadez, L., Bujor, A., Calvo Fernandez, E., Carbo, L., Deransy, R., Kanstein, A., and Lacatus, R. (2019). PJ19.04: Performance Framework (2019), SESAR Joint Undertaking. 01.00.01."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2023, April 07). ASPRID Gaming Exercise Results. Available online: https:\/\/www.asprid.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/220913-ASPRID-Gaming-Exercise-results-ENG.pdf."}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/14\/4\/239\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:15:53Z","timestamp":1760123753000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/14\/4\/239"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["info14040239"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info14040239","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]]}}}