{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T18:56:50Z","timestamp":1785351410302,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]],"date-time":"2023-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686787200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Virtual environments have been widely adopted for design and training tasks in the industrial domain. Low-cost automation (LCA) is a technology that automatizes some activities using mostly standard automation mechanisms available off the shelf. However, LCA systems should adapt to existing standard production lines and workstations. Thus, workers must customize standard LCA templates and perform adaptation and customization steps. This activity can be very time consuming with physical LCA systems, and in case of errors, it may be necessary to rebuild many parts from scratch. Thus, LCA systems would greatly benefit from a design and prototyping step experienced in a virtual simulation environment. An immersive virtual reality (IVR) application for rapid and easy prototyping of LCA solutions has been investigated in previous work; the assessment of the system usability proved that the users highly appreciated the proposed solutions. This research explores further improvements to exploit the existing IVR application as a training tool for LCA prototyping trainees. The proposed application now provides users with two different interaction paradigms based on the VIVE controllers and the Manus Prime II data gloves. The application\u2019s interface has been revised to allow a proper comparison of the two interaction models. The two interfaces have been compared, involving 12 participants in an LCA building task. The System Usability Scale (SUS) and the NASA Task Load Index (TLX) questionnaires have been used to assess the usability and workload of the two solutions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info14060340","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,16]],"date-time":"2023-06-16T02:02:20Z","timestamp":1686880940000},"page":"340","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["A Comparison of Two Interaction Paradigms for Training Low Cost Automation Assembly in Virtual Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6599-9949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federico","family":"Manuri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Automatica e Informatica, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federico","family":"Decataldo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Automatica e Informatica, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7916-1699","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Sanna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Automatica e Informatica, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paolo","family":"Brizzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Competence Industry Manufacturing 4.0 S.C.A R.L, Corso Settembrini 178, 10135 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"37","article-title":"How virtualization, decentralization and network building change the manufacturing landscape: An Industry 4.0 Perspective","volume":"8","author":"Brettel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Commun. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"767","article-title":"How to define industry 4.0: Main pillars of industry 4.0","volume":"761","author":"Erboz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Manag. Trends Dev. Enterp. Glob. Era"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2015.2388958","article-title":"Big data for modern industry: Challenges and trends [point of view]","volume":"103","author":"Yin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berni, A., and Borgianni, Y. (2020). Applications of virtual reality in engineering and product design: Why, what, how, when and where. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9071064"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"1108","article-title":"Low Cost Automation","volume":"107","author":"Gaudette","year":"1998","journal-title":"SAE Trans."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Katayama, H., Sawa, K., Hwang, R., Ishiwatari, N., and Hayashi, N. (2014, January 27\u201331). Analysis and classification of Karakuri technologies for reinforcement of their visibility, improvement and transferability: An attempt for enhancing lean management. Proceedings of the PICMET\u201914 Conference: Portland International Center for Management of Engineering and Technology, Infrastructure and Service Integration, Kanazawa, Japan."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012117","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/852\/1\/012117","article-title":"Increasing production efficiency using Karakuri principle (a case study in small and medium enterprise)","volume":"Volume 852","author":"Anggrahini","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manuri, F., Gravina, N., Sanna, A., and Brizzi, P. (2022, January 26\u201328). Prototyping industrial workstation in the Metaverse: A Low Cost Automation assembly use case. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE International Conference on Metrology for Extended Reality, Artificial Intelligence and Neural Engineering (MetroXRAINE), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroXRAINE54828.2022.9967626"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-4485(96)00094-2","article-title":"Virtual assembly using virtual reality techniques","volume":"29","author":"Jayaram","year":"1997","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Des."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1109\/38.799739","article-title":"VADE: A virtual assembly design environment","volume":"19","author":"Jayaram","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Dewar, R.G., Carpenter, I.D., Ritchie, J.M., and Simmons, J.E. (1997, January 27\u201331). Assembly planning in a virtual environment. Proceedings of the Innovation in Technology Management, The Key to Global Leadership. PICMET\u201997, Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-009-0153-y","article-title":"Virtual reality for assembly methods prototyping: A review","volume":"15","author":"Seth","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1108\/AA-09-2014-074","article-title":"Virtual Assembly with Physical Information: A Review","volume":"35","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Assem. Autom."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francillette, Y., Boucher, E., Bouzouane, A., and Gaboury, S. (2017). The virtual environment for rapid prototyping of the intelligent environment. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112562"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noghabaei, M., Asadi, K., and Han, K. (2019). Computing in Civil Engineering 2019: Visualization, Information Modeling, and Simulation, American Society of Civil Engineers.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784482421.013"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, S., Bodempudi, S.T., Arrolla, M., and Upadhyay, A. (2019, January 5\u20137). Collaborative Virtual Assembly Environment for Product Design. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSCI49370.2019.00114"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, X., Cui, X., Huo, H., Jiang, Y., Zhao, H., and Li, D. (2019, January 6\u20137). Virtual Assembly of Educational Robot Parts Based on VR Technology. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 11th International Conference on Engineering Education (ICEED), Kanazawa, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEED47294.2019.8994913"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2987","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-019-08214-8","article-title":"Immersive virtual reality to enforce teaching in engineering education","volume":"79","author":"Halabi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2019.1628072","article-title":"Digital factory\u2013virtual reality environments for industrial training and maintenance","volume":"29","author":"Shamsuzzoha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Interact. Learn. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeida, L., Lopes, E., Yal\u00e7inkaya, B., Martins, R., Lopes, A., Menezes, P., and Pires, G. (2019, January 6\u20139). Towards natural interaction in immersive reality with a cyber-glove. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC), Bari, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2019.8914239"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khundam, C., Vorachart, V., Preeyawongsakul, P., Hosap, W., and No\u00ebl, F. (2021). A comparative study of interaction time and usability of using controllers and hand tracking in virtual reality training. Informatics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/informatics8030060"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rantamaa, H.R., Kangas, J., Kumar, S.K., Mehtonen, H., J\u00e4rnstedt, J., and Raisamo, R. (2023). Comparison of a VR Stylus with a Controller, Hand Tracking, and a Mouse for Object Manipulation and Medical Marking Tasks in Virtual Reality. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13042251"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Brooke, J. (1986). System Usability Scale (SUS): A \u201cQuick and Dirty\u201d Usability Scale. Usability Evaluation in Industry, Taylor and Francis."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Hart, S.G. (2023, April 19). NASA Task Load Index (TLX), Available online: https:\/\/ntrs.nasa.gov\/api\/citations\/20000021488\/downloads\/20000021488.pdf."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"114","article-title":"Determining what individual SUS scores mean: Adding an adjective rating scale","volume":"4","author":"Bangor","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Usability Stud."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1778","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2021.3081182","article-title":"No-reference quality assessment for 360-degree images by analysis of multifrequency information and local-global naturalness","volume":"32","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2019.2898732","article-title":"Deep virtual reality image quality assessment with human perception guider for omnidirectional image","volume":"30","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/14\/6\/340\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:56:04Z","timestamp":1760126164000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/14\/6\/340"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["info14060340"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info14060340","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,15]]}}}