{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T14:45:37Z","timestamp":1774968337009,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]],"date-time":"2023-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701388800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Age-It","award":["1557 of 11\/10\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1557 of 11\/10\/2022"]}]},{"name":"Age-It","award":["CUP B53C22004090006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP B53C22004090006"]}]},{"name":"National Recovery and Resilience Plan (PNRR)","award":["1557 of 11\/10\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1557 of 11\/10\/2022"]}]},{"name":"National Recovery and Resilience Plan (PNRR)","award":["CUP B53C22004090006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP B53C22004090006"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research funded by the European Union\u2014NextGenerationEU","award":["1557 of 11\/10\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1557 of 11\/10\/2022"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research funded by the European Union\u2014NextGenerationEU","award":["CUP B53C22004090006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP B53C22004090006"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Eye-tracking systems have emerged as valuable tools in various research fields, including psychology, medicine, marketing, car safety, and advertising. However, the high costs of the necessary specialized hardware prevent the widespread adoption of these systems. Appearance-based gaze estimation techniques offer a cost-effective alternative that can rely solely on RGB cameras, albeit with reduced accuracy. Therefore, the aim of our work was to present a real-time eye-tracking system with low-end hardware that leverages appearance-based techniques while overcoming their drawbacks to make reliable gaze data accessible to more users. Our system employs fast and light machine learning algorithms from an external library called MediaPipe to identify 3D facial landmarks. Additionally, it uses a series of widely recognized computer vision techniques, like morphological transformations, to effectively track eye movements. The precision and accuracy of the developed system in recognizing saccades and fixations when the eye movements are mainly horizontal were tested through a quantitative comparison with the EyeLink 1000 Plus, a professional eye tracker. Based on the encouraging registered results, we think that it is possible to adopt the presented system as a tool to quickly retrieve reliable gaze information.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info14120644","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]],"date-time":"2023-12-01T04:12:56Z","timestamp":1701403976000},"page":"644","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Eye-Tracking System with Low-End Hardware: Development and Evaluation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1379-9106","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuele","family":"Iacobelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer, Control and Management Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-2910-0273","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valerio","family":"Ponzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer, Control and Management Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy"},{"name":"Institute for Systems Analysis and Computer Science, Italian National Research Council, 00185 Roma, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1846-9996","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuele","family":"Russo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3336-5853","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Napoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer, Control and Management Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy"},{"name":"Institute for Systems Analysis and Computer Science, Italian National Research Council, 00185 Roma, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Computational Intelligence, Czestochowa University of Technology, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.3368\/aoj.57.1.131","article-title":"Louis \u00e9mile javal (1839\u20131907): The father of orthoptics","volume":"57","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. 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