{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T06:56:04Z","timestamp":1780469764623,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]],"date-time":"2024-05-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716422400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study delves into the dual nature of artificial intelligence (AI), illuminating its transformative potential that has the power to revolutionize various aspects of our lives. We delve into critical issues such as AI hallucinations, misinformation, and unpredictable behavior, particularly in large language models (LLMs) and AI-powered chatbots. These technologies, while capable of manipulating human decisions and exploiting cognitive vulnerabilities, also hold the key to unlocking unprecedented opportunities for innovation and progress. Our research underscores the need for robust, ethical AI development and deployment frameworks, advocating a balance between technological advancement and societal values. We emphasize the importance of collaboration among researchers, developers, policymakers, and end users to steer AI development toward maximizing benefits while minimizing potential harms. This study highlights the critical role of responsible AI practices, including regular training, engagement, and the sharing of experiences among AI users, to mitigate risks and develop the best practices. We call for updated legal and regulatory frameworks to keep pace with AI advancements and ensure their alignment with ethical principles and societal values. By fostering open dialog, sharing knowledge, and prioritizing ethical considerations, we can harness AI\u2019s transformative potential to drive human advancement while managing its inherent risks and challenges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info15060299","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]],"date-time":"2024-05-23T11:37:13Z","timestamp":1716464233000},"page":"299","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":111,"title":["The Era of Artificial Intelligence Deception: Unraveling the Complexities of False Realities and Emerging Threats of Misinformation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2785-9734","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steven M.","family":"Williamson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Science, College of Information, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3810-9039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victor","family":"Prybutok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Technology and Decision Sciences, G. Brint Ryan College of Business, and the Toulouse Graduate School, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Bubeck, S., Chandrasekaran, V., Eldan, R., Gehrke, J., Horvitz, E., Kamar, E., Lee, P., Lee, Y.T., Li, Y., and Lundberg, S. (2023). Sparks of Artificial General Intelligence: Early experiments with GPT-4. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2022.107536","article-title":"Trust in an AI versus a Human teammate: The effects of teammate identity and performance on Human-AI cooperation","volume":"139","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.23.00473","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in orthopaedic surgery","volume":"105","author":"Brameier","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Bone Jt. Surg."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e46885","DOI":"10.2196\/46885","article-title":"The role of ChatGPT, Generative Language models, and Artificial intelligence in medical Education: A conversation with ChatGPT and a call for papers","volume":"9","author":"Eysenbach","year":"2023","journal-title":"JMIR Med. Educ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Wright, A.P., Patterson, B.L., Wanderer, J.P., Turer, R.W., Nelson, S.D., McCoy, A.B., Sittig, D.F., and Wright, A. (2023). Assessing the value of ChaTGPT for clinical decision support optimization. MedRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.02.21.23286254"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"12108","article-title":"\u2018Beach\u2019 to \u2018Bitch\u2019: Inadvertent unsafe transcription of kids\u2019 content on YouTube","volume":"36","author":"Ramesh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. AAAI Conf. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"e35179","article-title":"Artificial Hallucinations in ChatGPT: Implications in Scientific Writing","volume":"15","author":"Alkaissi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Athaluri, S.A., Manthena, S.V., Kesapragada, V.S.R.K.M., Yarlagadda, V., Dave, T., and Duddumpudi, R.T.S. (2023). Exploring the Boundaries of Reality: Investigating the phenomenon of artificial intelligence hallucination in scientific writing through ChatGPT references. Cureus, 15.","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.37432"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2023.3119","article-title":"Evaluation and comparison of ophthalmic scientific abstracts and references by current artificial intelligence chatbots","volume":"141","author":"Hua","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5275","DOI":"10.1097\/MS9.0000000000001228","article-title":"ChatGPT and artificial hallucinations in stem cell research: Assessing the accuracy of generated references\u2014A preliminary study","volume":"85","author":"Sharun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Q., and Wang, F. (2023). Faithful AI in Medicine: A Systematic Review with Large Language Models and Beyond. MedRxiv.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-3661764\/v1"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"35","article-title":"The challenges and opportunities of adopting artificial intelligence (AI) in Jordan\u2019s healthcare transformation","volume":"11","author":"Karim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glob. J. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-020-1581-2","article-title":"Smart additive manufacturing: Current artificial intelligence-enabled methods and future perspectives","volume":"63","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. China Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-018-0305-z","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in healthcare","volume":"2","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carroll, M., Chan, A.H.S., Ashton, H.C., and Krueger, D.A. (2023). Characterizing manipulation from AI systems. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1145\/3617694.3623226"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Str\u00fcmke, I., Slavkovik, M., and Stachl, C. (2023). Against algorithmic exploitation of human vulnerabilities. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Burtell, M., and Woodside, T. (2023). Artificial Influence: An analysis of AI-driven persuasion. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hemmer, P., Westphal, M., Schemmer, M., Vetter, S., V\u00f6ssing, M., and Satzger, G. (2023, January 27\u201331). Human-AI Collaboration: The Effect of AI Delegation on Human Task Performance and Task Satisfaction. Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, Sydney, NSW, Australia.","DOI":"10.1145\/3581641.3584052"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Schemmer, M., K\u00fchl, N., Benz, C., and Satzger, G. (2022). On the Influence of Explainable AI on Automation Bias. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Ferreira, J.J., and De Souza Monteiro, M. (2021). The human-AI relationship in decision-making: AI explanation to support people on justifying their decisions. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beckers, S., Chockler, H., and Halpern, J.Y. (2022). Quantifying harm. arXiv.","DOI":"10.24963\/ijcai.2023\/41"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Bohdal, O., Hospedales, T.M., Torr, P.H.S., and Barez, F. (2023). Fairness in AI and its Long-Term Implications on society. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clarke, S., and Whittlestone, J. (2022, January 19\u201321). A survey of the potential long-term impacts of AI. Proceedings of the 2022 AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, Oxford, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3514094.3534131"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.1.14020","article-title":"Negative human rights as a basis for long-term AI safety and regulation","volume":"76","author":"Bajgar","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Artif. Intell. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prunkl, C., and Whittlestone, J. (2020). Beyond Near- and Long-Term: Towards a clearer account of research priorities in AI ethics and society. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1145\/3375627.3375803"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindner, D., Heidari, H., and Krause, A. (2021). Addressing the long-term impact of ML decisions via policy regret. arXiv.","DOI":"10.24963\/ijcai.2021\/75"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Rastogi, C., Zhang, Y., Wei, D., Varshney, K.R., Dhurandhar, A., and Tomsett, R. (2020). Deciding fast and slow: The role of cognitive biases in AI-assisted decision-making. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Sinha, A.R., Goyal, N., Dhamnani, S., Asija, T., Dubey, R.K., Raja, M.V.K., and Theocharous, G. (2022). Personalized detection of cognitive biases in actions of users from Their logs: Anchoring and recency biases. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Dancy, C.L. (2022). Using a Cognitive Architecture to consider antiblackness in design and development of AI systems. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29221","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2016921117","article-title":"Adversarial vulnerabilities of human decision-making","volume":"117","author":"Dezfouli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"833","article-title":"On artificial intelligence and manipulation","volume":"42","author":"Ienca","year":"2023","journal-title":"Topoi-Int. Rev. Philos."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Scheurer, J., Balesni, M., and Hobbhahn, M. (2023). Technical Report: Large Language Models can Strategically Deceive their Users when Put Under Pressure. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Hubinger, E., Denison, C., Mu, J., Lambert, M., Tong, M., MacDiarmid, M., Lanham, T., Ziegler, D.M., Maxwell, T.T., and Cheng, N. (2024). Sleeper Agents: Training Deceptive LLMs that Persist Through Safety Training. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"14","article-title":"Tay is you. The attribution of responsibility in the algorithmic culture","volume":"13","year":"2019","journal-title":"Observatorio"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1142\/S2705078520500034","article-title":"Unpredictability of AI: On the impossibility of accurately predicting all actions of a smarter agent","volume":"7","author":"Yampolskiy","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Artif. Intell. Conscious."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2023GH000875","DOI":"10.1029\/2023GH000875","article-title":"Generative AI as a tool for Environmental Health Research Translation","volume":"7","author":"Anderson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geohealth"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1021\/acsenergylett.3c02586","article-title":"Can ChatGPT and other AI bots serve as peer reviewers?","volume":"9","author":"Buriak","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Energy Lett."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5190","DOI":"10.1007\/s00167-023-07529-2","article-title":"Exploring the potential of ChatGPT as a supplementary tool for providing orthopaedic information","volume":"31","author":"Kaarre","year":"2023","journal-title":"Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1097\/PAP.0000000000000406","article-title":"Application of CHATGPT in routine diagnostic pathology: Promises, pitfalls, and potential future directions","volume":"31","author":"Schukow","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Anat. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.5114\/biolsport.2023.125623","article-title":"From human writing to artificial intelligence generated text: Examining the prospects and potential threats of ChatGPT in academic writing","volume":"40","author":"Dergaa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Sport"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1878","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.1878","article-title":"What are the applications of ChatGPT in healthcare: Gain or loss?","volume":"7","author":"Montazeri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"e35237","article-title":"Applicability of CHATGPT in assisting to solve higher order problems in pathology","volume":"15","author":"Sinha","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Bommasani, R., Hudson, D.A., Adeli, E., Altman, R.B., Arora, S., Von Arx, S., Bernstein, M.S., Bohg, J., Bosselut, A., and Brunskill, E. (2021). On the Opportunities and Risks of Foundation Models. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1021\/acsenergylett.2c02828","article-title":"AI et al.: Machines Are About to Change Scientific Publishing Forever","volume":"8","author":"Grimaldi","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Energy Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1002\/ksa.12085","article-title":"A practical guide to the development and deployment of deep learning models for the orthopaedic surgeon: Part III, focus on registry creation, diagnosis, and data privacy","volume":"32","author":"Oeding","year":"2024","journal-title":"Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maddigan, P., and Su\u0161njak, T. (2023). Chat2VIS: Generating Data Visualisations via Natural Language using ChatGPT, Codex and GPT-3 Large Language Models. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3274199"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1097\/IJG.0000000000002338","article-title":"Can ChatGPT aid clinicians in educating patients on the surgical management of glaucoma?","volume":"33","author":"Kianian","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Glaucoma"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13334","article-title":"Do AI chatbots improve students learning outcomes? Evidence from a meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1984","DOI":"10.1021\/acsestwater.3c00264","article-title":"Leveraging deep learning and language models in revolutionizing water resource management, research, and policy making: A case for ChatGPT","volume":"3","author":"Ray","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS ES&T Water"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1002\/jcu.23590","article-title":"An investigation study on the interpretation of ultrasonic medical reports using OpenAI\u2019s GPT-3.5-turbo model","volume":"52","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clin. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Lyons, H., Velloso, E., and Miller, T. (2021). Fair and Responsible AI: A focus on the ability to contest. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1177\/0165551520985495","article-title":"Embodying algorithms, enactive artificial intelligence and the extended cognition: You can see as much as you know about algorithm","volume":"49","author":"Shin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Zhuang, S., and Hadfield-Menell, D. (2021). Consequences of misaligned AI. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, H., Dou, Z., Zhu, Y., Ma, Y., and Wen, J.-R. (2021, January 1\u20135). Learning implicit user profile for personalized Retrieval-Based chatbot. Proceedings of the 30th ACM International Conference on Information & Knowledge Management, Virtual.","DOI":"10.1145\/3459637.3482269"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12610","article-title":"Chatbots for language learning\u2014Are they really useful? A systematic review of chatbot-supported language learning","volume":"38","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Learn."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janati, S.E., Maach, A., and Ghanami, D.E. (2020). Adaptive e-Learning AI-Powered Chatbot based on Multimedia Indexing. Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Appl., 11.","DOI":"10.14569\/IJACSA.2020.0111238"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1162\/coli_a_00368","article-title":"The design and implementation of XiaoIce, an empathetic social chatbot","volume":"46","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Linguist."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Schemmer, M., Hemmer, P., K\u00fchl, N., Benz, C., and Satzger, G. (2022). Should I follow AI-based advice? Measuring appropriate reliance in Human-AI Decision-Making. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Liao, Q.V., and Bellamy, R.K.E. (2020, January 27\u201330). Effect of confidence and explanation on accuracy and trust calibration in AI-assisted decision making. Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1145\/3351095.3372852"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1007\/s42113-022-00157-y","article-title":"AI-Assisted Decision-making: A Cognitive Modeling Approach to Infer Latent Reliance Strategies","volume":"5","author":"Tejeda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Lemus, H.T., Kumar, A., and Steyvers, M. (2022). Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications, IOS Press."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Ambartsoumean, V.M., and Yampolskiy, R.V. (2023). AI risk Skepticism, a comprehensive survey. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.1.14565","article-title":"Liability Regimes in the Age of AI: A Use-Case Driven Analysis of the Burden of Proof","volume":"76","author":"Llorca","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Artif. Intell. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Lima, G., and Cha, M. (2020). Responsible AI and its stakeholders. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-08-2022-1041","article-title":"Letting AI make decisions for me: An empirical examination of hotel guests\u2019 acceptance of technology agency","volume":"36","author":"Morosan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Q., Steinfeld, A., Ros\u00e9, C.P., and Zimmerman, J. (2020, January 25\u201330). Re-examining whether, why, and how Human-AI interaction is uniquely difficult to design. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3313831.3376301"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1109\/TTS.2023.3257627","article-title":"Designing AI using a Human-Centered approach: Explainability and accuracy toward trustworthiness","volume":"4","author":"Schoenherr","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Technol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3579612","article-title":"Improving Human-AI collaboration with descriptions of AI behavior","volume":"7","author":"Cabrera","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Vincent, J. (2024, January 15). Twitter Taught Microsoft\u2019s AI Chatbot to Be a Racist Asshole in Less than a Day. Available online: https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2016\/3\/24\/11297050\/tay-microsoft-chatbot-racist."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Lee, P. (2024, January 15). Learning from Tay\u2019s introduction\u2014The Official Microsoft Blog. Available online: https:\/\/blogs.microsoft.com\/blog\/2016\/03\/25\/learning-tays-introduction\/."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Jalan, A. (2024, January 15). 6 Lessons Microsoft Learned from Its Tay AI Chatbot Disaster. Available online: https:\/\/www.makeuseof.com\/lessons-microsoft-learned-tay-ai-disaster\/."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Pasricha, S. (2022). AI ethics in smart Healthcare. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, L. (2021). AI in Finance: Challenges, Techniques and Opportunities. arXiv.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3869625"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Epstein, Z., Lin, H., Pennycook, G., and Rand, D.A.J. (2022). How many others have shared this? Experimentally investigating the effects of social cues on engagement, misinformation, and unpredictability on social media. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Hacker, P., and Passoth, J.-H. (2022). International Workshop on Extending Explainable AI beyond Deep Models and Classifiers, Springer. Lecture Notes in Computer Science."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Germain, T. (2024, January 24). Back from the Dead? Sydney, Microsoft\u2019s Psychotic Chatbot, Could Return. Available online: https:\/\/gizmodo.com\/bing-ai-sydney-microsoft-chatgpt-might-come-back-1850475832."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Perrigo, B. (2024, February 01). The New AI-Powered Bing Is Threatening Users. That\u2019s No Laughing Matter. Available online: https:\/\/time.com\/6256529\/bing-openai-chatgpt-danger-alignment\/."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809321","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2021.809321","article-title":"Automatic speech recognition in noise for Parkinson\u2019s disease: A pilot study","volume":"4","author":"Goudarzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erd\u00e9lyi, O.J., and Erd\u00e9lyi, G. (2020, January 7\u20139). The AI liability puzzle and a Fund-Based Work-Around. Proceedings of the AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3375627.3375806"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-023-00823-w","article-title":"The proposed EU Directives for AI liability leave worrying gaps likely to impact medical AI","volume":"6","author":"Duffourc","year":"2023","journal-title":"Npj Digit. Med."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freeman, L.J., Rahman, A., and Batarseh, F.A. (2021). Enabling Artificial Intelligence Adoption through Assurance. Soc. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci10090322"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Kahn, J. (2024, February 01). Why Bing\u2019s Creepy Alter-Ego Is a Problem for Microsoft\u2014And Us All. Available online: https:\/\/fortune.com\/2023\/02\/21\/bing-microsoft-sydney-chatgpt-openai-controversy-toxic-a-i-risk\/."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Wells, K. (2024, February 23). An Eating Disorders Chatbot Offered Dieting Advice, Raising Fears about AI in Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/health-shots\/2023\/06\/08\/1180838096\/an-eating-disorders-chatbot-offered-dieting-advice-raising-fears-about-ai-in-hea."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"McCarthy, L. (2024, February 23). A Wellness Chatbot Is Offline after Its \u2018Harmful\u2019 Focus on Weight Loss. Available online: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/06\/08\/us\/ai-chatbot-tessa-eating-disorders-association.html."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Tolentino, D. (2024, February 23). NEDA Pulls Chatbot after Users Say It Gave Harmful Dieting Tips. Available online: https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/tech\/neda-pulls-chatbot-eating-advice-rcna87231."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1968","DOI":"10.1002\/rcs.1968","article-title":"Legal, regulatory, and ethical frameworks for development of standards in artificial intelligence (AI) and autonomous robotic surgery","volume":"15","author":"Nevejans","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Robot. Comput. Assist. Surg."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137430","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3117120","article-title":"User stress in Artificial intelligence: Modeling in case of system failure","volume":"9","author":"Bitkina","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patter.2020.100049","article-title":"Rapid Trust Calibration through Interpretable and Uncertainty-Aware AI","volume":"1","author":"Tomsett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Patterns"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Novelli, C., Taddeo, M., and Floridi, L. (2023). Accountability in artificial intelligence: What it is and how it works. AI Soc.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-023-01635-y"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Atillah, I.E. (2024, February 25). Man Ends His Life after an AI Chatbot \u201cEncouraged\u201d Him to Sacrifice Himself to Stop Climate Change. Available online: https:\/\/www.euronews.com\/next\/2023\/03\/31\/man-ends-his-life-after-an-ai-chatbot-encouraged-him-to-sacrifice-himself-to-stop-climate-."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Bharade, A. (2024, February 25). A Widow Is Accusing an AI Chatbot of Being a Reason Her Husband Killed Himself. Available online: https:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/widow-accuses-ai-chatbot-reason-husband-kill-himself-2023-4."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Marcus, G. (2024, February 25). The First Known Chatbot Associated Death. Available online: https:\/\/garymarcus.substack.com\/p\/the-first-known-chatbot-associated."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Walker, L. (2024, January 12). Belgian Man Dies by Suicide Following Exchanges with Chatbot. Available online: https:\/\/www.brusselstimes.com\/."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Xiang, C. (2024, February 25). \u201cHe Would Still Be Here\u201d: Man Dies by Suicide after Talking with AI Chatbot, Widow Says. Available online: https:\/\/www.vice.com\/."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1177\/1094670517752459","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in service","volume":"21","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"70","article-title":"Surfing the AI wave: Insights and challenges","volume":"56","author":"Ebigbo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Endoscopy"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-023-00766-2","article-title":"Human visual explanations mitigate bias in AI-based assessment of surgeon skills","volume":"6","author":"Kiyasseh","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Digit. Med."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrara, E. (2023). Fairness and Bias in Artificial Intelligence: A Brief Survey of Sources, Impacts, and Mitigation Strategies. Sci, 6.","DOI":"10.2196\/preprints.48399"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-023-00266-9","article-title":"A seven-layer model with checklists for standardising fairness assessment throughout the AI lifecycle","volume":"4","author":"Agarwal","year":"2023","journal-title":"AI Ethics"},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Barney, M., and Fisher, W.P. (2017). 18th International Congress of Metrology, EDP Sciences."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e367","DOI":"10.2196\/jmir.8775","article-title":"Beyond Adoption: A new framework for theorizing and evaluating nonadoption, abandonment, and challenges to the Scale-Up, spread, and sustainability of health and care technologies","volume":"19","author":"Greenhalgh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1007\/s11747-019-00696-0","article-title":"How artificial intelligence will change the future of marketing","volume":"48","author":"Davenport","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Acad. Mark. Sci."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1108\/IJOA-12-2020-2558","article-title":"AI-enabled knowledge sharing and learning: Redesigning roles and processes","volume":"30","author":"Sundaresan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Organ. Anal."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1108\/JEIM-07-2020-0284","article-title":"A framework for understanding artificial intelligence research: Insights from practice","volume":"34","author":"Bawack","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Enterp. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Salo-P\u00f6ntinen, H. (2021). International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, Springer. Lecture Notes in Computer Science."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1390","DOI":"10.1177\/09567976231207095","article-title":"AI hyperrealism: Why AI faces are perceived as more real than human ones","volume":"34","author":"Miller","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2022.105441","article-title":"On the realness of people who do not exist: The social processing of artificial faces","volume":"25","author":"Tucciarelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1287\/isre.2023.1199","article-title":"Expl(AI)ned: The Impact of Explainable Artificial Intelligence on Users\u2019 Information Processing","volume":"34","author":"Bauer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chatterjee, S., and Shenoy, P. (2020). Model-agnostic fits for understanding information seeking patterns in humans. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v35i1.16160"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gajos, K.Z., and Mamykina, L. (2022, January 22\u201325). Do people engage cognitively with AI? Impact of AI assistance on Incidental Learning. Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, Helsinki, Finland.","DOI":"10.1145\/3490099.3511138"},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Cheng, Y., Chen, L., and Hsu, J.Y.-J. (2019). Human-AI Co-Learning for Data-Driven AI. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"Russell, S., Moskowitz, I.S., and Raglin, A. (2017). Autonomy and Artificial Intelligence: A Threat or Savior?, Springer."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2021.1882501","article-title":"Information without knowledge: The effects of Internet search on learning","volume":"30","author":"Fisher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Memory"}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/15\/6\/299\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:47:29Z","timestamp":1760107649000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/15\/6\/299"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]]},"references-count":113,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["info15060299"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info15060299","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]]}}}