{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T18:05:14Z","timestamp":1772042714098,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,7]],"date-time":"2025-01-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736208000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Brescia","award":["CUP D33C22001300002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP D33C22001300002"]}]},{"name":"University of Brescia","award":["PE00000014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000014"]}]},{"name":"University of Brescia","award":["PE00000001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000001"]}]},{"name":"University of Brescia","award":["101078411"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101078411"]}]},{"name":"EU-NGEU","award":["CUP D33C22001300002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP D33C22001300002"]}]},{"name":"EU-NGEU","award":["PE00000014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000014"]}]},{"name":"EU-NGEU","award":["PE00000001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000001"]}]},{"name":"EU-NGEU","award":["101078411"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101078411"]}]},{"name":"European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe project","award":["CUP D33C22001300002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP D33C22001300002"]}]},{"name":"European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe project","award":["PE00000014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000014"]}]},{"name":"European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe project","award":["PE00000001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000001"]}]},{"name":"European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe project","award":["101078411"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101078411"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent advances in signal processing and AI-based inference enable the exploitation of wireless communication signals to collect information on devices, people, actions, and the environment in general, i.e., to perform Integrated Sensing And Communication (ISAC). This possibility offers exciting opportunities for Internet of Things (IoT) systems, but it also introduces unprecedented threats to the security and privacy of data, devices, and systems. In fact, ISAC operates in the wireless PHY and Medium Access Control (MAC) layers, where it is impossible to protect information with standard encryption techniques or with any other purely digital methodologies. The goals of this paper are threefold. First, it analyzes the threats to security and privacy posed by ISAC and how they intertwine in the wireless PHY layer within the framework of IoT and distributed pervasive communication systems in general. Secondly, it presents and discusses possible countermeasures to protect users\u2019 security and privacy. Thirdly, it introduces an architectural proposal, discussing the available choices and tradeoffs to implement such countermeasures, as well as solutions and protocols to preserve the potential benefits of ISAC while ensuring data protection and users\u2019 privacy. The outcome and contribution of the paper is a systematic argumentation on wireless PHY-layer privacy and security threats and their relation with ISAC, framing the boundaries that research and innovation in this area should respect to avoid jeopardizing people\u2019s rights.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info16010031","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,7]],"date-time":"2025-01-07T05:06:34Z","timestamp":1736226394000},"page":"31","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Communication and Sensing: Wireless PHY-Layer Threats to Security and Privacy for IoT Systems and Possible Countermeasures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4755-2844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Renato","family":"Lo Cigno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell\u2019Informazione (DII), University of Brescia and Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per le Telecomunicazioni (CNIT), 25124 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2621-582X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Gringoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell\u2019Informazione (DII), University of Brescia and Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per le Telecomunicazioni (CNIT), 25124 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1428-9776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Bartoletti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettronica (DIE), University of Rome Tor Vergata and CNIT, 00133 Roma, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1838-348X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Cominelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegnaria (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3372-422X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Ghiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell\u2019Informazione (DII), University of Brescia and Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per le Telecomunicazioni (CNIT), 25124 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7655-3313","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuele","family":"Zanini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettronica (DIE), University of Rome Tor Vergata and CNIT, 00133 Roma, Italy"},{"name":"IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca, 55100 Lucca, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4059","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2022.3203249","article-title":"A Survey on IoT Intrusion Detection: Federated Learning, Game Theory, Social Psychology, and Explainable AI as Future Directions","volume":"10","author":"Arisdakessian","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Givehchian, H., Bhaskar, N., Herrera, E.R., Soto, H.R.L., Dameff, C., Bharadia, D., and Schulman, A. 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