{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T05:27:08Z","timestamp":1780550828680,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]],"date-time":"2025-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750377600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), a part of UK Research and Innovation (UKRI)","award":["EP\/V039164\/1."],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/V039164\/1."]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is anticipated to revolutionize transport by integrating conventional public transport with on-demand and shared services. This innovation promises enhanced convenience, flexibility, and sustainability in urban mobility, drawing interest from both researchers and industry. However, those systems heavily rely on the collection and sharing of personal data among various stakeholders, introducing security and privacy risks. To understand the scale and scope of cyber security and privacy concerns and risks associated with MaaS, we conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) covering 87 relevant research papers published between 2017 and April 2025. Our review represents the most comprehensive examination focusing on cyber security and privacy issues of MaaS systems. Our findings reveal three themes discussed within the MaaS literature: (i) cyber security and privacy risks inherent to MaaS systems, alongside proposed solutions to mitigate such risks; (ii) users\u2019 concerns about these risks and how they affect MaaS adoption; and (iii) laws and policies that govern cyber security and privacy aspects of MaaS systems and solutions. As such, our research serves to not only inform MaaS service providers and users but also advise policymakers and legislators on the potential risks involved and the regulatory measures required to address them.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info16070514","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]],"date-time":"2025-06-20T06:10:27Z","timestamp":1750399827000},"page":"514","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A Systematic Literature Review on Cyber Security and Privacy Risks in MaaS (Mobility-as-a-Service) Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6969-6451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rahime","family":"Belen-Saglam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science and Digital Technologies, University of East London, London E16 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6084-6719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haiyue","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cyber Security for Society (iCSS) & School of Computing, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NP, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5755-5256","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Sophia","family":"Heering","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0057-9994","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramsha","family":"Ashraf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Politics and International Relations, Northeastern University London, London E1W 1LP, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5628-7328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shujun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cyber Security for Society (iCSS) & School of Computing, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NP, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0264-8377(95)00027-5","article-title":"The land use\u2014Transport connection: An overview","volume":"13","author":"Newman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2020.103036","article-title":"Barriers and risks of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) adoption in cities: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"109","author":"Butler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"2","article-title":"Mobility as a Service","volume":"12","author":"Hietanen","year":"2014","journal-title":"New Transp. Model"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"112","article-title":"The rise of mobility as a service","volume":"20","author":"Goodall","year":"2017","journal-title":"Deloitte Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1080\/19427867.2020.1815141","article-title":"Mobility-as-a-service: Insights to policymakers and prospective MaaS operators","volume":"14","author":"Pagoni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transp. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"24","article-title":"The development of Mobility-as-a-Service in the Helsinki metropolitan area: A multi-level governance analysis","volume":"27","author":"Audouin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Transp. Bus. Manag."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"3","article-title":"A topological approach to Mobility as a Service: A proposed tool for understanding requirements and effects, and for aiding the integration of societal goals","volume":"27","author":"Sochor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Transp. Bus. Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"468","article-title":"A Literature Review on Interactions Between Stakeholders Through Accessibility Indicators Under Mobility as a Service Context","volume":"19","author":"Pham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Intell. Transp. Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"253","article-title":"The Ws of MaaS: Understanding mobility as a service from a literature review","volume":"44","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Int. Assoc. Traffic Saf. Sci. (IATSS)"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"46","article-title":"Dynamic adaptive policymaking for implementing Mobility-as-a Service (MaaS)","volume":"27","author":"Jittrapirom","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Transp. Bus. Manag."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.retrec.2018.08.007","article-title":"Workshop 7 report: The \u201cuberisation\u201d of public transport and mobility as a service (MaaS): Implications for future mainstream public transport","volume":"69","author":"Mulley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Transp. Econ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2022.10.015","article-title":"Barriers to the adoption of the mobility-as-a-service concept: The case of Istanbul, a large emerging metropolis","volume":"129","author":"Kayikci","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.29007\/7fm9","article-title":"Analysing Barriers in the Business Ecosystem of European MaaS Providers: An Actor-Network Approach","volume":"93","author":"Gebhart","year":"2023","journal-title":"EPiC Ser. Comput."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maas, B. (2022). Literature Review of Mobility as a Service. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14148962"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1080\/01441647.2022.2119297","article-title":"A review on the factors influencing the adoption of new mobility technologies and services: Autonomous vehicle, drone, micromobility and mobility as a service","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transp. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s11301-023-00375-z","article-title":"Systematic mapping of scientific publications on maas","volume":"75","author":"Natvig","year":"2025","journal-title":"Manag. Rev. Q."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ugj.2025.02.002","article-title":"Enhancing data sovereignty to improve intelligent mobility services in smart cities","volume":"5","author":"Anthony","year":"2025","journal-title":"Urban Gov."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Garroussi, Z., Legrain, A., Gambs, S., Gautrais, V., and Sans\u00f2, B. (2023). Data privacy for Mobility as a Service. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"101254","article-title":"A systematic review of data privacy in Mobility as a Service (MaaS)","volume":"31","author":"Garroussi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ekpo, O., Casola, V., and De Benedictis, A. (2024, January 23\u201326). Security and Privacy Issues in Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS): A Systematic Review. Proceedings of the 2024 19th Annual System of Systems Engineering Conference (SoSE), Tacoma, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SOSE62659.2024.10620969"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Systematic Review on Imbalanced Data Challenges in Machine Learning: Applications and Solutions","volume":"52","author":"Kaur","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-021-01626-4","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"10","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.3389\/frma.2018.00006","article-title":"Tale of three databases: The implication of coverage demonstrated for a sample query","volume":"3","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Res. Metrics Anal."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haddaway, N.R., Collins, A.M., Coughlin, D., and Kirk, S. (2015). The Role of Google Scholar in Evidence Reviews and its Applicability to Grey Literature Searching. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138237"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36226","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2971712","article-title":"On Using Grey Literature and Google Scholar in Systematic Literature Reviews in Software Engineering","volume":"8","author":"Yasin","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2019.09.026","article-title":"MaaS surveillance: Privacy considerations in mobility as a service","volume":"131","author":"Cottrill","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barreto, L., Amaral, A., and Baltazar, S. (2018, January 25\u201327). Urban Mobility Digitalization: Towards Mobility as a Service (MaaS). Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Intelligent Systems, Madeira, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IS.2018.8710457"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Costantini, F., Archetti, E., Di Ciommo, F., and Ferencz, B. (2025, June 05). IoT, Intelligent Transport Systems and MaaS (Mobility as a Service). Jusletter IT 21. Available online: https:\/\/cambiamo.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/Costantini-et-al.-2019-IoT-intelligent-transport-systems-and-MaaS-mobility-as-a-service.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1080\/10630732.2018.1553096","article-title":"Electric vehicle mobility-as-a-service: Exploring the \u201cTri-Opt\u201d of novel private transport business models","volume":"26","author":"Cooper","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Urban Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3788","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2021.3064834","article-title":"Blockchain-based Privacy-preserving Driver Monitoring for MaaS in the Vehicular IoT","volume":"70","author":"Kong","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2017.05.055","article-title":"Privacy-preserving MaaS fleet management","volume":"23","author":"Belletti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2017.10.006","article-title":"Cloud-of-Things meets Mobility-as-a-Service: An insider threat perspective","volume":"74","author":"Callegati","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Pitera, K., and Marinelli, G. (2017). Autonomous E-Mobility as a Service-Final Report, NTNU. Technical Report Report 3\/2017 NTNU IBM."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198121992074","article-title":"Gravity Model of Passenger and Mobility Fleet Origin\u2013Destination Patterns with Partially Observed Service Data","volume":"2675","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2019.09.025","article-title":"Collaboration as a service (CaaS) to fully integrate public transportation\u2013Lessons from long distance travel to reimagine mobility as a service","volume":"131","author":"Merkert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s12544-019-0363-7","article-title":"Perceived action spaces for public actors in the development of Mobility as a Service","volume":"11","author":"Smith","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Transp. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Araghi, Y., Larco, N., Bouma, G., Doll, C., Vonk Noordegraaf, D., and Krau\u00df, K. (2020, January 27\u201330). Drivers and Barriers of Mobility-as-a-Service in urban areas. Proceedings of the 8th Transport Research Arena Conference (TRA) 2020, Helsinki, Finland."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z., and Zhang, N. (2021). A Novel Development Scheme of Mobility as a Service: Can It Provide a Sustainable Environment for China?. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13084233"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"15","article-title":"Review on mobility as a service in scientific publications","volume":"27","author":"Utriainen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Transp. Bus. Manag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1109\/TCNS.2016.2612828","article-title":"Resiliency of Mobility-as-a-Service Systems to Denial-of-Service attacks","volume":"5","author":"Thai","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Control Netw. Syst."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1109\/MSEC.2020.3013759","article-title":"Security for Shared Electric and Automated Mobility Services in Smart Cities","volume":"19","author":"Vaidya","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Secur. Priv."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Callegati, F., Delnevo, G., Melis, A., Mirri, S., Prandini, M., and Salomoni, P. (2017, January 3\u20136). I want to ride my bicycle: A microservice-based use case for a MaaS architecture. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications, Heraklion, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCC.2017.8024498"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Callegati, F., Giallorenzo, S., Melis, A., and Prandini, M. (2017, January 4\u20137). Insider Threats in Emerging Mobility-as-a-Service Scenarios. Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Science, Waikoloa, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mouhibbi, L., Elhozmari, M., and Ettalbi, A. (2018, January 10\u201312). Sorting and persisting REST and SOAP client for MaaS based architecture. Proceedings of the 2018 6th International Conference on Multimedia Computing and Systems, Rabat, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMCS.2018.8525963"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carvalho, G., Cabral, B., Pereira, V., and Bernardino, J. (2019, January 29\u201331). A Case for Machine Learning in Edge-Oriented Computing to Enhance Mobility as a Service. Proceedings of the 2019 15th International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Systems, Santorini Island, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/DCOSS.2019.00101"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cruz, C.O., and Sarmento, J.M. (2020). \u201cMobility as a service\u201d Platforms: A Critical Path towards Increasing the Sustainability of Transportation Systems. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12166368"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2020.07.004","article-title":"Mobility as a service and sustainable travel behaviour: A thematic analysis study","volume":"73","author":"Alyavina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, T.H., Partala, J., and Pirttikangas, S. (August, January 29). Blockchain-Based Mobility-as-a-Service. Proceedings of the 2019 28th International Conference on Computer Communication and Networks, Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCN.2019.8847027"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"54","article-title":"Digitally transferable ownership of mobility-as-a-service systems using blockchain and smart contracts","volume":"20","author":"Chinaei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transp. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bothos, E., Magoutas, B., Arnaoutaki, K., and Mentzas, G. (2019, January 14\u201317). Leveraging Blockchain for Open Mobility-as-a-Service Ecosystems. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE\/WIC\/ACM International Conference on Web Intelligence\u2014Companion Volume, Thessaloniki, Greece.","DOI":"10.1145\/3358695.3361844"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cstp.2020.10.009","article-title":"Customer-led mobility: A research agenda for Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) enablement","volume":"8","author":"Casady","year":"2020","journal-title":"Case Stud. Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulla, E., Barolli, L., Matsuo, K., and Ikeda, M. (2023, January 23\u201325). Blockchain Applications for Mobility-as-a-Service Ecosystem: A Survey. Proceedings of the Advances in Internet, Data & Web Technologies: The 11th International Conference on Emerging Internet, Data & Web Technologies (EIDWT-2023), Semarang, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-26281-4_13"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campolo, C., Cuzzocrea, D., Genovese, G., Iera, A., and Molinaro, A. (2019, January 7\u20139). An OMA Lightweight M2M-compliant MEC Framework to Track Multi-modal Commuters for MaaS Applications. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE\/ACM 23rd International Symposium on Distributed Simulation and Real Time Applications, Cosenza, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/DS-RT47707.2019.8958677"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1109\/MITS.2023.3237271","article-title":"Connected and Automated Mobility Services in 5G Cross-Border Environments: Challenges and Prospects","volume":"15","author":"Katsaros","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Transp. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campolo, C., Genovese, G., Molinaro, A., and Pizzimenti, B. (2020, January 14\u201316). Digital Twins at the Edge to Track Mobility for MaaS Applications. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE\/ACM 24th International Symposium on Distributed Simulation and Real Time Applications, Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/DS-RT50469.2020.9213699"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christiaanse, R. (2019, January 13\u201317). Mobility as a Service. Proceedings of the Companion Proceedings of the 2019 World Wide Web Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3308560.3317050"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2018.11.003","article-title":"Ready for Mobility as a Service? Insights from stakeholders and end-users","volume":"21","author":"Polydoropoulou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Callegati, F., Gabbrielli, M., Giallorenzo, S., Melis, A., and Prandini, M. (2017, January 16\u201319). Smart mobility for all: A global federated market for mobility-as-a-service operators. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 20th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Yokohama, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2017.8317701"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breuer, D., Spichartz, P., and Sourkounis, C. (2019, January 8\u201310). Concept of interlinking mobility services for urban transport towards intermodal mobility including private and shared electromobility. Proceedings of the 2019 14th International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies, Monte-Carlo, Monaco.","DOI":"10.1109\/EVER.2019.8813511"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-024-00856-9","article-title":"Toward seamless mobility-as-a-service: Providing multimodal mobility through digital wallets","volume":"67","author":"Hoess","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bus. Inf. Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miron, R., Hulea, M., Muresan, V., Clitan, I., and Rusu, A. (2025). Integrating Blockchain Technology into Mobility-as-a-Service Platforms for Smart Cities. Smart Cities, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/smartcities8010009"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ekpo, O., Casola, V., and De Benedictis, A. (2024, January 16\u201318). Towards a Privacy Resilient Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS): A Threat-driven Approach. Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Smart Systems and Technologies (SST), Osijek, Croatia. pp. 271\u2013224.","DOI":"10.1109\/SST61991.2024.10755473"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1109\/MITS.2024.3427655","article-title":"A Survey of Artificial Intelligence-Related Cybersecurity Risks and Countermeasures in Mobility-as-a-Service","volume":"16","author":"Chu","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Transp. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oberoi, K.S. (2024, January 2\u20134). Personalisation in Mobility-as-a-Service: Where We Are and How to Move Forward. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Vehicle Technology and Intelligent Transport Systems (VEHITS 2024), Angers, France.","DOI":"10.5220\/0012687100003702"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"101162","article-title":"The road not taken yet: A review of cyber security risks in mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) ecosystems and a research agenda","volume":"56","author":"Peralta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Res. Transp. Bus. Manag."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5565","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2024.3379283","article-title":"Multi-agent reinforcement learning-based passenger spoofing attack on mobility-as-a-service","volume":"21","author":"Chu","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2024.100867","article-title":"Mobility on demand in the United States\u2013Current state of integration and policy considerations for improved interoperability","volume":"37","author":"Kummetha","year":"2024","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwinger, F., and Krempels, K.H. (2019, January 19\u201321). Mobility-oriented Agenda Planning as a Value-adding Feature for Mobility as a Service. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Agents and Artificial Intelligence, Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.5220\/0007693402880294"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2021.07.011","article-title":"Are travellers willing to adopt MaaS? Exploring attitudinal and personality factors in the case of Madrid, Spain","volume":"25","author":"Monzon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"100672","article-title":"Application of crowdsourced data to infer user satisfaction with Mobility as a Service (MaaS)","volume":"15","author":"Aman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cstp.2022.09.012","article-title":"Listening to users\u2019 personal privacy concerns. The implication of trust and privacy concerns on the user\u2019s adoption of a MaaS-pilot","volume":"10","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Iotzov, V., Cartolano, F., Ciccarelli, G., Durant, T., and Rizzoli, A.E. (2018, January 16\u201319). Integration vs fragmentation: Alternative tactics of local mobility businesses in response to a global wave of market disruptions. Proceedings of the 7th Transport Research Arena TRA 2018, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2019.09.022","article-title":"Exploring motivational mechanisms behind the intention to adopt mobility as a service (MaaS): Insights from Germany","volume":"131","author":"Schikofsky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2019.09.034","article-title":"MaaS for the suburban market: Incorporating carpooling in the mix","volume":"131","author":"Wright","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2019.09.029","article-title":"Bundling, pricing schemes and extra features preferences for mobility as a service: Sequential portfolio choice experiment","volume":"131","author":"Caiati","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"100107","article-title":"Children, Young people and Mobility as a Service: Opportunities and barriers for future mobility","volume":"4","author":"Golightly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2020.120066","article-title":"A study on users\u2019 willingness to accept mobility as a service based on UTAUT model","volume":"157","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2015.07.002","article-title":"Privacy attitudes and privacy behaviour: A review of current research on the privacy paradox phenomenon","volume":"64","author":"Kokolakis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cstp.2025.101433","article-title":"Assessment of the barriers in establishing passenger mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) systems: An analogy with multimodal freight transport","volume":"20","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Case Stud. Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"101348","article-title":"Examining university students\u2019 preferences toward MaaS aspects","volume":"30","author":"Kriswardhana","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2025.104430","article-title":"Exploring the potential adoption of Mobility-as-a-Service in Beijing: A spatial agent-based model","volume":"194","author":"Tang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s12544-023-00625-x","article-title":"Assessing the intention to uptake MaaS: The case of Randstad","volume":"16","author":"Monzon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Transp. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cstp.2025.101364","article-title":"The role of subscription sharing and nationality in MaaS uptake in Qatar","volume":"19","author":"Tsirimpa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Case Stud. Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, S., Li, B., Wang, H., Liu, Y., and Hu, S. (2024). Applying a Modified Technology Acceptance Model to Explore Individuals\u2019 Willingness to Use Mobility as a Service (MaaS): A Case Study of Beijing, China. Systems, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/systems12120511"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tunn, V., Van Opstal, W., and Athanasopoulou, A. (2025, June 05). Unlocking Sustainable Mobility: Consumer Preferences and Segments on Mobility-as-A-Service Platforms. Available online: https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5168626.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.5168626"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100079","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubtr.2023.100079","article-title":"University students\u2019 adoption of mobility as a service with respect to user preferences and group differences","volume":"26","author":"Kriswardhana","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Public Transp."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Underhill, B., and Knowles, A. (October, January 21). Governance Participation Strategies for Mobility as a Service. Proceedings of the Transportation Association of Canada 2020 Conference and Exhibition-The Journey to Safer Roads, Toronto, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Knowles, A., Underhill, B., Wong, R., and Lightsone, A. (2019, January 26\u201329). Mobility as a Service: Governance Strategies for Impending Disruptions. Proceedings of the 2019 Canadian Transportation Research Forum 54th Annual Conference-Change, Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Bevis, K., Sozcu, O., and Fenner, R. (2018, January 25). Mobility as a Service. Presented at EEVConvention: Policies and Best Practice, Oslo, Norway."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.3390\/futuretransp3020029","article-title":"Mobility as a Service (MaaS) Planning and Implementation: Challenges and Lessons Learned","volume":"3","author":"Mitropoulos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Future Transp."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s12544-020-00447-1","article-title":"Mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) digital marketplace impact on EU passengers\u2019 rights","volume":"12","author":"Murati","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Transp. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Kamargianni, M., and Goulding, R. (2018, January 16\u201319). The Mobility as a Service Maturity Index: Preparing the Cities for the Mobility as a Service Era. Proceedings of the 7th Transport Research Arena TRA 2018, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.05.277","article-title":"A Critical Review of New Mobility Services for Urban Transport","volume":"14","author":"Kamargianni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Hlubi, N., and Seftel, L. (2019, January 8\u201311). Could Mobility as a Service (MaaS) Have a Role in an Integrated Public Transport Network in South African Cities?. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Southern African Transport Conference 2019, Pretoria, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2022.02.061","article-title":"Multidimensional indicator of MaaS systems performance","volume":"62","author":"Bandeira","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1883","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-020-01788-8","article-title":"Towards social life cycle assessment of mobility services: Systematic literature review and the way forward","volume":"25","author":"Gompf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2024.12.059","article-title":"Governance as Success Factor for Implementing MaaS in Countries with High Share of Expatriates: Qatar\u2019s Case Study","volume":"82","author":"Mohammed","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103964","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2024.103964","article-title":"Transport stakeholders\u2019 perceptions of Mobility-as-a-Service: A Q-study of cultural shift proponents, policy advocates and technology supporters","volume":"181","author":"Nikitas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1882","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3317358","article-title":"Privacy-preserving federated deep reinforcement learning for mobility-as-a-service","volume":"25","author":"Chu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Finnish Ministry of Justice (2025, May 01). Personal Data Act (1999). Finnish law, Finlex 523\/1999. Available online: https:\/\/natlex.ilo.org\/dyn\/natlex2\/r\/natlex\/fe\/details?p3_isn=73914."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Andrews, E.S., Barthel, L.P., Tabea, B., Beno\u00eet, C., Ciroth, A., Cucuzzella, C., Gensch, C.O., H\u00e9bert, J., Lesage, P., and Manhart, A. (2022). Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products, United Nations Environment Programme. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goedkoop, M.J., de Beer, I.M., Harmens, R., Saling, P., Morris, D., Florea, A., Hettinger, A.L., Indrane, D., Visser, D., and Morao, A. (2025, May 01). Product Social Impact Assessment Handbook. Available online: https:\/\/ciraig.org\/index.php\/project\/product-social-impact-assessment-handbook\/.","DOI":"10.4337\/9781800378650.00019"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2481","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-014-0761-7","article-title":"Security of the Internet of Things: Perspectives and challenges","volume":"20","author":"Jing","year":"2014","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s40537-016-0059-y","article-title":"Big data privacy: A technological perspective and review","volume":"3","author":"Jain","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Big Data"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2018.12.010","article-title":"The importance of user perspective in the evolution of MaaS","volume":"121","author":"Lyons","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landolfi, G., Bami, A., Izzo, G., Montini, E., Bettoni, A., Vujasinovic, M., Gugliotta, A., Soares, A.L., and Diogo Silva, H. (2018, January 25\u201327). An Ontology Based Semantic Data Model Supporting A Maas Digital Platform. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Intelligent Systems, Funchal, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IS.2018.8710519"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yazdizadeh, A., and Farooq, B. (2021). Smart Mobility Ontology: Current Trends and Future Directions. Handbook of Smart Cities, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-15145-4_66-1"}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/16\/7\/514\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:55:38Z","timestamp":1760032538000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/16\/7\/514"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["info16070514"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info16070514","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]}}}