{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,18]],"date-time":"2025-10-18T05:11:16Z","timestamp":1760764276782,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760400000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62306128"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62306128"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Basic Science Research Project of Jiangsu Provincial Department of Education","award":["23KJD520003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23KJD520003"]}]},{"name":"Leading Innovation Project of Changzhou Science and Technology Bureau","award":["CQ20230072"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CQ20230072"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2023YFF1105102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFF1105102"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In complex scenarios, such as industrial parks and underground parking lots, efficient and safe autonomous navigation is essential for driverless operation and automatic parking. However, conventional modular navigation methods, especially the A* algorithm, suffer from excessive node traversal and short paths that bring vehicles dangerously close to obstacles. To address these issues, we propose an autonomous navigation approach based on a layered terrain cost map and a nonlinear predictive control model, which ensures real-time performance, safety, and reduced computational cost. The global planner applies a two-stage A* strategy guided by the hierarchical terrain cost map, improving efficiency and obstacle avoidance, while the local planner combines linear interpolation with nonlinear model predictive control to adaptively adjust the vehicle speed under varying terrain conditions. Experiments conducted in simulated and real underground parking scenarios demonstrate that the proposed method significantly improves the computational efficiency and navigation safety, outperforming the traditional A* algorithm and other baseline approaches in overall performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info16100896","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]],"date-time":"2025-10-17T11:39:34Z","timestamp":1760701174000},"page":"896","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Autonomous Navigation Approach for Complex Scenarios Based on Layered Terrain Analysis and Nonlinear Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9563-8845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenhe","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou 213001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Leer","family":"Hua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou 213001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shuonan","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou 213001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yue","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou 213001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qi","family":"Pu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou 213001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xundiao","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Teacher Education, Qujing Normal University, Qujing 655011, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C., Mees, O., Zeng, A., and Burgard, W. 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