{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T09:30:17Z","timestamp":1763976617031,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]],"date-time":"2025-11-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763856000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wireless sensor networks are installed beneath the earth\u2019s surface to track and assess the condition of the below-ground structures. In these systems, buried sensor nodes identify structural anomalies and transmit the sensed information through both soil and air to a sink node located above the ground. In a river-bridge-pillar-monitoring setup, the sensor node located at the pillar\u2019s base sends signals that propagate through soil, water, and air before being received by the sink positioned beneath the bridge. This signal transmission involves transmission through soil, water, and air media. The transmission of signals through soil, water, and air media is yet to be explored through a defined channel model. This study introduces a channel model where the signal traverses through soil, water, and air, and derives an analytical formulation to represent the associated path loss. In addition, experimental validation of the obtained analytical path-loss was conducted using a LoRa setup. It was observed from analytical and experimental results that soil depth and water level individually affect the path loss significantly. This severe attenuation needs to be addressed before the actual deployment of the network.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info16121019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T09:02:07Z","timestamp":1763974927000},"page":"1019","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Soil\u2013Water\u2013Air (SWA) Interface Channel Model for River Bridge Pillar Health Monitoring Using WSN"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9054-5316","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hitesh","family":"Panda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Siksha \u2018O\u2019 Anusandhan Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar 751030, Odisha, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3152-8791","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roopesh","family":"Ramesh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Technology, Bengaluru 560056, Karnataka, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0763-6701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saranya","family":"Subbaiyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, BMS Institute of Technology & Management, Bengaluru 560119, Karnataka, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4057-5998","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Swamy Thimmaiah","family":"Nagendra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Technology, Bengaluru 560056, Karnataka, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7875-6276","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manoranjan","family":"Das","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Siksha \u2018O\u2019 Anusandhan Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar 751030, Odisha, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3519-6117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benudhar","family":"Sahu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Siksha \u2018O\u2019 Anusandhan Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar 751030, Odisha, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2006.04.003","article-title":"Wireless underground sensor network: Research challenges","volume":"4","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw. 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