{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T14:19:03Z","timestamp":1764857943224,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764806400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>One of the bottlenecks hindering the applications (e.g., vehicle navigation) of blockchain\u2013UCAN is privacy. A sharded blockchain can protect vehicle data to a certain extent. However, unbalanced shard loads lead to low throughput and poor feature extraction in blockchain\u2013UCAN. This paper proposes an optimal image binarization method (OTSU-GK) to enhance image features and reduce the amount of uploaded data, thereby improving throughput. Specifically, OTSU-GK uses a Gaussian kernel method where the parameters are optimized using grid search to improve the calculation of the threshold. Additionally, we have designed a Node Load Score (NLS)-based sharding blockchain, which considers the number of historical transactions, transaction types, transaction frequency, and other metrics to balance the sharding loads and further improve throughput. The experimental results show that OTSU-GK improves by 74.3%, 58.7%, and 83% in SSIM, RMSE\/MAE\/AER, and throughput. In addition, it reduces IL by 70.3% compared to other methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info16121072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T13:53:30Z","timestamp":1764856410000},"page":"1072","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["OTSU-UCAN: An OTSU-Based Integrated Satellite\u2013Terrestrial Information System for 6G in Vehicle Navigation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0065-4824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yawei","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mangement Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Finance and Economics, Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kui","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Qufu Normal University, Rizhao 276800, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gang","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mangement Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Finance and Economics, Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5249-8082","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuyu","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Artificial Intelligence, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mingyue","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Qufu Normal University, Rizhao 276800, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bohan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Qufu Normal University, Rizhao 276800, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1448-3619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science, Qufu Normal University, Rizhao 276800, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"146","article-title":"User-centric access network (UCAN) for 6G: Motivation, concept, challenges and key technologies","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. 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