{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T14:34:00Z","timestamp":1765377240270,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765324800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the highly volatile realm of global security, the necessity for leading-edge and effectual border resilience tactics has never been more imperative. This PRISMA 2020 guided systematic literature review (SLR) examines the intersection of artificial intelligence (AI), open-source intelligence (OSINT), and social media intelligence (SOCMINT) for enhancing border protection. Our systematic investigation across major databases (IEEE Xplore, Scopus, SpringerLink, MDPI, ACM) and grey literature sources yielded 3932 initial records and, after screening and eligibility assessment, 73 studies and reports from acknowledged organizations, contributing to the evidence synthesis. Three research questions (RQ1\u2013RQ3) were addressed concerning the following: (a) the effectiveness and application of AI in OSINT\/SOCMINT for border protection, its (b) data, technical, and operational limitations, and its (c) ethical, legal, and societal implications (GELSI). Evidence matrices summarize the findings, while narrative syntheses underline and thematically group the extracted insights. Results indicate that AI techniques\u2014fluctuating from machine learning (ML) and natural language processing (NLP) to computer vision and emerging large language models (LLMs)\u2014produce quantifiable improvements in forecasting irregular migration, detecting human trafficking, and supporting multimodal intelligence fusion. However, limitations include misinformation, data bias, adversarial vulnerabilities, governance deficits, and sandbox-to-production gaps. Ethical and societal concerns highlight risks of surveillance overreach, discrimination, and insufficient oversight, among others. To our knowledge, this is the first SLR at this intersection. We conclude that, AI-assisted OSINT\/SOCMINT presents transformative potential for border protection requiring, nonetheless, balanced governance, robust validation, and future research on LLM\/agentic AI, human\u2013AI teaming, and oversight mechanisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info16121095","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T14:22:40Z","timestamp":1765376560000},"page":"1095","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["AI-Assisted OSINT\/SOCMINT for Safeguarding Borders: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1152-7065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandros","family":"Karakikes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Intelligent Systems Lab (i-Lab), Department of Cultural Technology and Communication, University of the Aegean, University Hill, 81100 Mytilene, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7838-9691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Kotis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intelligent Systems Lab (i-Lab), Department of Cultural Technology and Communication, University of the Aegean, University Hill, 81100 Mytilene, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Stryker, C., and Kavlakoglu, E. (2024, August 09). What Is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? IBM. Available online: https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/think\/topics\/artificial-intelligence."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2019, February 18). Wikipedia. Artificial Intelligence. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muduli, D., Toppo, A.U., Singh, V., Singh, M., and Tiwari, D.P. (2024, January 24\u201328). YOLOv8-AF: A Novel Customized YOLOv8-Accurate Fast Deep Learning Model for Enhancing Border Security in Various Global Regions. Proceedings of the 2024 15th International Conference on Computing Communication and Networking Technologies (ICCCNT), Kamand, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCNT61001.2024.10724856"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khera, V., Prasad, A.R., and Kwanoran, S. (2024). Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT): A Practical Introduction: A Field Manual, River Publishers.","DOI":"10.1201\/9788770047180"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Frontex (2025, August 12). Artificial Intelligence-Based Capabilities for the European Border and Coast Guard: Final Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.frontex.europa.eu\/assets\/Publications\/Research\/Frontex_AI_Research_Study_2020_final_report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2025, July 15). Unchained Project. Caravan of Light Report. Available online: https:\/\/unchainedproject.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/02\/CARAVAN-OF-LIGHT-REPORT-FINAL-14-FEBRUARY.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ozer, M., Kucukkaya, G., Kose, Y., Mukasheva, A., Ciris, K., and Penumatcha, B.V. (2025). Mapping Trafficking Networks: A Data-Driven Approach to Disrupt Human Trafficking Post Russia-Ukraine Conflict. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-94953-1_17"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2025, August 13). World Customs Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.wcoomd.org\/en\/media\/newsroom\/2024\/august\/unlocking-the-value-of-osint-in-customs-enforcement.aspx."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Janjeva, A., Harris, A., and Byrne, J. (2025, August 19). \u201cThe Future of Open-Source Intelligence for UK National Security,\u201d RUSI Occasional Papers. Available online: https:\/\/cetas.turing.ac.uk\/publications\/future-open-source-intelligence-uk-national-security."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Department of Homeland Security (2025, June 11). Privacy Impact Assessment for the Use of Social Media by U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), Available online: https:\/\/www.dhs.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/privacy-pia-cbp58-socialmedia-march2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kodandaram, S.R., Sunkara, M., Ferdous, J., Poursardar, F., and Ashok, V. (2024, January 10\u201313). Unveiling Coyote Ads: Detecting Human Smuggling Advertisements on Social Media. Proceedings of the 35th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media, Poznan Poland.","DOI":"10.1145\/3648188.3675139"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Dumbrava, C. (2025, August 19). Artificial Intelligence at EU Borders: Overview of Applications and Key Issues. European Parliamentary Research Service. Available online: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/RegData\/etudes\/IDAN\/2021\/690706\/EPRS_IDA(2021)690706_EN.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Zakaria, S., Howard, I., Coringrato, E., Todsen, A.L., Wade, I., Ross, A., Pisani, K., Politi, C., Szomszor, M., and Gunashekar, S. (2025, August 19). State-of-Play and Future Trends on the Development of Governance Frameworks for Emerging Technologies [Research Report]. RAND Corporation. Available online: https:\/\/www.rand.org\/randeurope\/research\/projects\/2024\/governance-frameworks.html."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Frontex (2025, August 19). Strategic Risk Analysis 2024: Report. Available online: https:\/\/prd.frontex.europa.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/strategic-risk-analysis-2024-report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s12399-025-01019-8","article-title":"A Comprehensive Approach to the Management of Migration Towards Europe","volume":"18","author":"Gerdes","year":"2025","journal-title":"Z. F\u00fcr Au\u00dfen- Und Sicherheitspolitik"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Frontex (2025, August 19). Reference Architecture for European Border Surveillance (Version 3, No. 25.0178). Available online: https:\/\/www.frontex.europa.eu\/assets\/25.0178_European_Border_Surveillance_v3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"European Border and Coast Guard Agency (2025, May 27). Reference Architecture for European Border Surveillance, Available online: https:\/\/data.europa.eu\/doi\/10.2819\/8183238."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2016, July 20). U.S. Customs and Border Protection. U.S. Customs and Border Protection Cybersecurity Strategy, Available online: https:\/\/www.cbp.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/assets\/documents\/2016-Jul\/cbp-cyberstrategy-20160720.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2025, July 13). Invisible Gatekeepers: DHS\u2019 Growing Use of AI in Immigration Decisions. American Immigration Council. Available online: https:\/\/www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org\/blog\/invisible-gatekeepers-dhs-growing-use-of-ai-in-immigration-decisions\/."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2025, August 08). AI Use Case Inventory Library|Homeland Security, Available online: https:\/\/www.dhs.gov\/publication\/ai-use-case-inventory-library."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"NATO Parliamentary Assembly (2025, August 17). NATO and Artificial Intelligence: Report of the Science and Technology Committee (STC 058 E rev.2). Available online: https:\/\/www.nato-pa.int\/document\/2024-nato-and-ai-report-clement-058-stc."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Recorded Future (2025, June 17). Artificial Eyes: Generative AI in China\u2019s Military Intelligence (Insikt Group). Available online: https:\/\/assets.recordedfuture.com\/insikt-report-pdfs\/2025\/ta-cn-2025-0617.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1111\/risa.14254","article-title":"A machine learning\u2013based generalized approach for predicting unauthorized immigration flow considering dynamic border security nexus","volume":"44","author":"Aziz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1177\/01979183231203931","article-title":"Forecasting Ukrainian Refugee Flows with Organic Data Sources","volume":"59","author":"Wycoff","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Migr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1177\/01979183241249969","article-title":"Integrating Traditional and Social Media Data to Predict Bilateral Migrant Stocks in the European Union","volume":"59","author":"Yildiz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Migr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e81","DOI":"10.1017\/dap.2024.48","article-title":"A Machine Learning architecture to forecast Irregular Border Crossings and Asylum requests for policy support in Europe: A case study","volume":"6","author":"Bosco","year":"2024","journal-title":"Data Policy"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"El Rahwan, A. (2025, June 11). Artificial Intelligence and Interoperability for Solving Challenges of OSINT and Cross-Border Investigations. CEPOL Research and Science Conference 2022. Preparing Law Enforcement for the Digital Age. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/365710562_ARTIFICIAL_INTELLIGENCE_AND_INTEROPERABILITY_FOR_SOLVING_CHALLENGES_OF_OSINT_AND_CROSS-BORDER_INVESTIGATIONS."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carammia, M., Iacus, S.M., and Wilkin, T. (2022). Forecasting asylum-related migration flows with machine learning and data at scale. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-05241-8"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.28991\/HEF-2022-03-03-07","article-title":"Methods of Extraction and Analysis of Intelligence to Combat Threats of Organized Crime at the Border","volume":"3","author":"Farion","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hum. Earth Future"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Havas, C., Wendlinger, L., Stier, J., Julka, S., Krieger, V., Ferner, C., Petutschnig, A., Granitzer, M., Wegenkittl, S., and Resch, B. (2021). Spatio-Temporal Machine Learning Analysis of Social Media Data and Refugee Movement Statistics. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10080498"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1177\/00491241221140144","article-title":"Modeling the Bias of Digital Data: An Approach to Combining Digital with Official Statistics to Estimate and Predict Migration Trends","volume":"53","author":"Hsiao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sociol. Methods Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Islam Md, S., Rahim, M.A., Podder, N.K., Hossain Md, N., and Hossain, M.I. (2024, January 25\u201327). Prediction of Irregular Bangladesh-EU Migration Trends Using Machine Learning Techniques. Proceedings of the 2024 3rd International Conference on Advancement in Electrical and Electronic Engineering (ICAEEE), Gazipur, Bangladesh.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAEEE62219.2024.10561697"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7:1","DOI":"10.1147\/JRD.2019.2948824","article-title":"A machine learning approach to scenario analysis and forecasting of mixed migration","volume":"64","author":"Nair","year":"2020","journal-title":"IBM J. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartawan, D.A., Santoso, B.J., and Pratomo, B. (2023, January 14\u201315). Comparative Study of Machine Learning Algorithm on Linguistic Distinctions over Text Related to Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation. Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Advanced Mechatronics, Intelligent Manufacture and Industrial Automation (ICAMIMIA), Surabaya, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAMIMIA60881.2023.10427655"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Upadhayay, B., Lodhia, Z.A.M., and Behzadan, V. (2021, January 7). Combating Human Trafficking via Automatic OSINT Collection, Validation and Fusion. Proceedings of the ICWSM, Virtual."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLIII-B2-2022-729-2022","article-title":"SIGNIFICANCE. Stop illicit heritage trafficking with Artificial Intelligence","volume":"43","author":"Abate","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1000","article-title":"Geospatial Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence for Detecting Potential Coca Paste Production Infrastructure in the Border Region of Venezuela and Colombia","volume":"18","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Appl. Secur. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"301937","article-title":"Autocrime\u2014Open Multimodal Platform for Combating Organized Crime","volume":"54","author":"Madikeri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int. Digit. Investig."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.9734\/jerr\/2025\/v27i21390","article-title":"Investigating the Feasibility and Risks of Leveraging Artificial Intelligence and Open Source Intelligence to Manage Predictive Cyber Threat Models","volume":"27","author":"Lawal","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Eng. Res. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2024.125509","article-title":"Evaluation of LLM-based chatbots for OSINT-based Cyber Threat Awareness","volume":"261","author":"Shafee","year":"2025","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, X., Wang, J., Zhao, H., Yan, T., and Qi, F. (2024). Empowering LLMs with Toolkits: An Open-Source Intelligence Acquisition Method. Future Internet, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi16120461"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Freeman, N.K., Nguyen, T., Bott, G., Parton, J.M., and Francel, C. (2025). Language Models for Adult Service Website Text Analysis. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Karabatis, S.N., and Janeja, V.P. (2024). Creating Geospatial Trajectories from Human Trafficking Text Corpora. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biagio, M.S., Simoncini, S., La Mattina, E., and Morreale, V. (2024, January 1\u20132). MARPLE: A Framework for Social Media Threat Intelligence. Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Computer, Data Sciences and Applications (ACDSA), Victoria, Seychelles,.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACDSA59508.2024.10467738"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Shawakfa, E.M., Alsobeh, A.M.R., Omari, S., and Shatnawi, A. (2025). RADAR#: An Ensemble Approach for Radicalization Detection in Arabic Social Media Using Hybrid Deep Learning and Transformer Models. Information, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/info16070522"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.32628\/CSEIT2410118","article-title":"Enhanced Audio-Based Open-Source Intelligence Insights using Machine Learning","volume":"10","author":"Ayub","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res. Comput. Sci. Eng. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ndlovu, L., Mkuzangwe, N., De Kock, A., Thwala, N., Mokoena, J., and Matimatjatji, R. (2023, January 23\u201325). A Situational Awareness Tool using Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI). Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Conference on Advances in Data-Driven Analytics and Intelligent Systems (ADACIS), Marrakesh, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/ADACIS59737.2023.10424256"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Backfried, G., Thomas-Aniola, D., Pilutti, D., Boyer, M., Hein, R., Tatabaei, A., Zinkanell, M., Suker, M., and Agathonos, P. (2023, January 16\u201320). PINPOINT\u2014A multidisciplinary framework for semi-automatic risk assessment in military operations and civilian missions. Proceedings of the Conference on Cognitive and Computational Aspects of Situation Management 2023, Philadelphia, PA, USA."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"9","article-title":"Computer Vision Detection of Explosive Ordnance: A High-Performance 9N235\/9N210 Cluster Submunition Detector","volume":"27","author":"Harvey","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Conv. Weapons Destr."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"200458","article-title":"Design and implementation of EventsKG for situational monitoring and security intelligence in India: An open-source intelligence gathering approach","volume":"24","author":"Hassan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Intell. Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Li, W., Wang, C., Cui, X., Liu, Z., Guo, W., and Cui, L. (2025). COSINT-Agent: A Knowledge-Driven Multimodal Agent for Chinese Open Source Intelligence. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, T.H., and Rudra, K. (2024, January 13\u201317). Human vs ChatGPT: Effect of Data Annotation in Interpretable Crisis-Related Microblog Classification. Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2024, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1145\/3589334.3648141"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2018.10.009","article-title":"Localising social network users and profiling their movement","volume":"81","author":"Pellet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354-1","DOI":"10.2352\/EI.2023.35.3.MOBMU-354","article-title":"Importance of OSINT\/SOCMINT for modern disaster management evaluation\u2014Australia, Haiti, Japan","volume":"35","author":"Mansoor","year":"2023","journal-title":"Electron. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Wang, S., Li, D., Sun, S., and Wu, Q. (2024). GeoLocator: A location-integrated large multimodal model (LMM) for inferring geo-privacy. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14167091"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2911","DOI":"10.1007\/s10207-024-00868-2","article-title":"A systematic review on research utilising artificial intelligence for open source intelligence (OSINT) applications","volume":"23","author":"Browne","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bamigbade, O., Sheppard, J., and Scanlon, M. (2024). Computer Vision for Multimedia Geolocation in Human Trafficking Investigation: A Systematic Literature Review. arXiv.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4833243"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1080\/19361610.2020.1761737","article-title":"Systematic Literature Review to Investigate the Application of Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) with Artificial Intelligence","volume":"16","author":"Evangelista","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Secur. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.30574\/msarr.2024.11.1.0091","article-title":"Advanced surveillance and detection systems using deep learning to combat human trafficking","volume":"11","author":"Ijiga","year":"2024","journal-title":"Magna Sci. Adv. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-023-01628-x","article-title":"Open source intelligence and AI: A systematic review of the GELSI literature","volume":"39","author":"Ghioni","year":"2024","journal-title":"AI Soc."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91740","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3572348","article-title":"A Comprehensive Survey on AI in Counter-Terrorism and Cybersecurity: Challenges and Ethical Dimensions","volume":"13","author":"Syllaidopoulos","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1080\/10439463.2019.1666846","article-title":"Social media and border security: Twitter use by migration policing agencies","volume":"30","author":"Walsh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Polic. Soc."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1177\/17488958221123855","article-title":"Artificial intelligence, illegalised mobility and lucrative alchemy of border utopia","volume":"25","author":"Milivojevic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Criminol. Crim. Justice"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1080\/13600869.2024.2364996","article-title":"Transparency as the defining feature for developing risk assessment AI technology for border control","volume":"39","author":"Milaj","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Law Comput. Technol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s40878-022-00305-0","article-title":"An eye for an \u2018I:\u2019 a critical assessment of artificial intelligence tools in migration and asylum management","volume":"10","author":"Nalbandian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comp. Migr. Stud."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clsr.2024.105967","article-title":"Unpacking AI-enabled border management technologies in Greece: To what extent their development and deployment are transparent and respect data protection rules?","volume":"53","author":"Chelioudakis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Law Secur. Rev."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vavoula, N. (2024). Tr-Ai-Nsforming Migration, Asylum and Border Management in the EU: The Roles of the Ai Act, Interoperable Large-Scale it Systems and EU Migration Agencies. SSRN.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4765470"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Buolamwini, J., and Gebru, T. (2018, January 23\u201324). Gender shades: Intersectional accuracy disparities in commercial gender classification. Proceedings of the Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency, PMLR, New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"439","article-title":"Algorithmic Gender Bias and Audiovisual Data: A Research Agenda","volume":"15","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Commun."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3274357","article-title":"The Misgendering Machines: Trans\/HCI Implications of Automatic Gender Recognition","volume":"2","author":"Keyes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s41125-023-00092-4","article-title":"Using Open, Public Data for Security Provision: Ethical Perspectives on Risk-Based Border Checks in the EU","volume":"8","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Secur. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaikh, R., Joshi, G., and Himabindu, K. (2025). AI-Powered Monitoring System for Detecting Drug Trafficking on Social Media. Int. J. Innov. Sci. Res. Technol., 1062\u20131068.","DOI":"10.38124\/ijisrt\/25mar413"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"40","article-title":"Future threat landscapes: The impact on intelligence and security services","volume":"49","author":"Weissmann","year":"2025","journal-title":"Security and Defence Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Zuiderveen Borgesius, F., Beckers, P., and Brouwer, E. (2024). Automated decision-making and artificial intelligence at European borders and their risks for human rights. SSRN Electron. J.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4790619"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palotti, J., Adler, N., Morales-Guzman, A., Villaveces, J., Sekara, V., Garcia Herranz, M., Al-Asad, M., and Weber, I. (2020). Monitoring of the Venezuelan exodus through Facebook\u2019s advertising platform. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0230455"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Brundage, M., Avin, S., Clark, J., Toner, H., Eckersley, P., Garfinkel, B., Dafoe, A., Scharre, P., Zeitzoff, T., and Filar, B. (2024). The Malicious Use of Artificial Intelligence: Forecasting, Prevention, and Mitigation. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Meier, R. (2025). Threats and Opportunities in AI-generated Images for Armed Forces. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.59573\/emsj.9(5).2025.17","article-title":"Synthetic Identities and Deepfake Attacks: The Next Frontier in Enterprise AI Security","volume":"9","author":"Verma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. Mod. Stud. J."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Zhou, X., Kim, H., Brahman, F., Jiang, L., Zhu, H., Lu, X., Xu, F., Lin, B.Y., Choi, Y., and Mireshghallah, N. (2025). HAICOSYSTEM: An Ecosystem for Sandboxing Safety Risks in Human-AI Interactions. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Babcock, J., Kramar, J., and Yampolskiy, R.V. (2017). Guidelines for Artificial Intelligence Containment. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nahs.2021.101110","article-title":"Safe-visor Architecture for Sandboxing (AI-based) Unverified Controllers in Stochastic Cyber-Physical Systems","volume":"43","author":"Zhong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nonlinear Anal. Hybrid Syst."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3569958","article-title":"An Analysis of Adversary-Centric Security Testing within Information and Operational Technology Environments","volume":"4","author":"Staves","year":"2023","journal-title":"Digit. Threat. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.32996\/jcsts.2023.5.4.27","article-title":"Big Data and Migration Forecasting: Predictive Insights into Displacement Patterns Triggered by Climate Change and Armed Conflict","volume":"5","author":"Hossain","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Comput. Sci. Technol. Stud."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Suciu, G., Sachian, M.-A., Bratulescu, R., Koci, K., and Parangoni, G. (August, January 30). Entity Recognition on Border Security. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Availability, Reliability and Security, Vienna Austria."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Expanded ASEAN Guide on AI Governance and Ethics\u2014Generative AI (2025, September 13). ASEAN Main Portal. Available online: https:\/\/asean.org\/book\/expanded-asean-guide-on-ai-governance-and-ethics-generative-ai\/."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Cooperation (2025, May 27). AI and Policing: The Benefits and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence for Law Enforcement. Publications Office. Available online: https:\/\/data.europa.eu\/doi\/10.2813\/0321023."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"(2023, November 01). U.S. Executive Office of the President. Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence (Federal Register, 88 (212), 66073-66084), Available online: https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2023\/11\/01\/2023-24283\/safe-secure-and-trustworthy-development-and-use-of-artificial-intelligence."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akhgar, B., Hough, K.L., Samad, Y.A., Bayerl, P.S., and Karakostas, A. (2022). An Overview of Systems Related to Border Management and Migration into the EU: A Concept of Prevention and Detection of Illegal Activities. Information and Communications Technology in Support of Migration, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-93266-4"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1163\/15718166-12340114","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence (AI) at Schengen Borders: Automated Processing, Algorithmic Profiling and Facial Recognition in the Era of Techno-Solutionism","volume":"23","author":"Vavoula","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Migr. Law"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwarz, K., Bollens, K., Arias Aranda, D., and Hartmann, M. (2024). AI-Enhanced Disaster Management: A Modular OSINT System for Rapid Automated Reporting. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app142311165"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1108\/JICES-01-2014-0005","article-title":"Augmented borders: Big Data and the ethics of immigration control","volume":"13","author":"Ajana","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Inf. Commun. Ethics Soc."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"C, A., and Carter, R. (2025, July 12). Large Language Models and Intelligence Analysis. Available online: https:\/\/cetas.turing.ac.uk\/publications\/large-language-models-and-intelligence-analysis."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clsr.2024.106057","article-title":"An Infrastructural Brussels Effect: The translation of EU Law into the UK\u2019s digital borders","volume":"55","author":"Sullivan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Law Secur. Rev."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"OSCE Office of the Special Representative and Co-Ordinator, and for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings (2025, May 27). New Frontiers: The Use of Generative Artificial Intelligence to Facilitate Trafficking in Persons [Policy Brief]. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). Available online: https:\/\/www.osce.org\/files\/f\/documents\/7\/d\/579715.pdf."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"George Mason University (2025, March 12). Using AI to Uncover Human Smuggling Networks. Available online: https:\/\/cec.gmu.edu\/news\/2025-01\/using-ai-uncover-human-smuggling-networks."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ranade, P., and Joshi, A. (2023, January 6\u20139). FABULA: Intelligence Report Generation Using Retrieval-Augmented Narrative Construction. Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining, Kusadasi, T\u00fcrkiye.","DOI":"10.1145\/3625007.3627505"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8889","DOI":"10.15662\/IJRAI.2023.0603003","article-title":"RAG-Driven Cybersecurity Intelligence: Leveraging Semantic Search for Improved Threat Detection","volume":"6","author":"Gandhi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Appl. Innov."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"LangChain (2025, November 01). Build a RAG agent with LangChain. LangChain Docs., Available online: https:\/\/docs.langchain.com\/oss\/python\/langchain\/rag."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suresh, H., and Guttag, J. (2021, January 5\u20139). A Framework for Understanding Sources of Harm throughout the Machine Learning Life Cycle. Proceedings of the 1st ACM Conference on Equity and Access in Algorithms, Mechanisms, and Optimization, Virtually.","DOI":"10.1145\/3465416.3483305"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20180083","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2018.0083","article-title":"Algorithms that remember: Model inversion attacks and data protection law","volume":"376","author":"Veale","year":"2018","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"1","article-title":"OSINT research studios: A flexible crowdsourcing framework to scale up open source intelligence investigations","volume":"8","author":"Trattner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Zhao, D. (2024). FRAG: Toward Federated Vector Database Management for Collaborative and Secure Retrieval-Augmented Generation (Version 1). arXiv."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"North Carolina State University Laboratory for Analytic Sciences (2025, August 03). Large Language Models for Intelligence Analysis. Available online: https:\/\/ncsu-las.org\/2024\/11\/large-language-models-for-intelligence-analysis\/."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Yang, T.-L., Liu, J.-S., Tseng, Y.-H., and Jang, J.-S.R. (2025). Knowledge retrieval based on generative AI. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, S., Peng, J., and Ferrara, E. (2024). Tracing the Unseen: Uncovering Human Trafficking Patterns in Job Listings. arXiv.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4883445"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luceri, L., Boniardi, E., and Ferrara, E. Leveraging Large Language Models to Detect Influence Campaigns on Social Media. Proceedings of the Companion Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2024, Singapore, 13\u201317 May 2024.","DOI":"10.1145\/3589335.3651912"},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"Goglia, D. (2025, May 27). Multi-Aspect Integrated Migration Indicators (MIMI) Dataset; (Version 2) [Dataset]; Zenodo. Available online: https:\/\/zenodo.org\/records\/6493325."}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/16\/12\/1095\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T14:32:23Z","timestamp":1765377143000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/16\/12\/1095"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]]},"references-count":108,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["info16121095"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info16121095","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]]}}}