{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T05:07:41Z","timestamp":1780549661844,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780358400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As artificial intelligence becomes increasingly embedded in educational practice, how teachers evaluate and respond to AI teaching tools has become an important issue for understanding human\u2013AI interaction and technology application in educational contexts. However, existing research has yet to provide a clear explanation of why teachers form divergent decisions\u2014namely, adoption and resistance\u2014toward the same technology. To address this issue, this study integrates the Artificial Intelligence Device Use Acceptance framework, Behavioral Reasoning Theory, and Diffusion of Innovation Theory to develop a dual-path analytical framework, aiming to uncover the evaluation and decision-making mechanisms underlying vocational teachers\u2019 responses to AI teaching tools. Based on survey data collected from 503 Chinese vocational college teachers and analyzed using structural equation modeling, the results indicate that perceived attractiveness significantly enhances adoption intention through positive emotions, whereas risk barriers increase alternative attractiveness and thereby indirectly strengthen resistance intention. Usage barriers show no significant effect. In addition, trust significantly moderates the relationship between positive emotions and resistance intention. The findings suggest that teachers\u2019 responses to AI teaching tools are not driven by a single behavioral tendency but are instead shaped by a dual-path decision mechanism in which cognitive evaluations and affective processing jointly operate, with a core trade-off between attractiveness and alternative attractiveness. This study deepens the understanding of behavioral divergence in AI teaching tool use by highlighting the role of evaluation and decision-making mechanisms in human\u2013AI interaction contexts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info17060544","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T14:38:42Z","timestamp":1780411122000},"page":"544","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Vocational Teachers\u2019 Adoption of and Resistance to AI Teaching Tools: A Dual-Path Framework"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6678-8283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiaqi","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Finance and Business, Shanxi Vocational University of Culture and Tourism, Taiyuan 030032, China"},{"name":"Graduate School of Management of Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Management of Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Economic Management, Shanxi Engineering Vocational College, Taiyuan 030009, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6370-4799","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yao","family":"Ni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Integrated Circuits, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2737","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12903-9","article-title":"Investigating teachers\u2019 perceptions of artificial intelligence tools in education: Potential and difficulties","volume":"30","author":"Alwaqdani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2022.2049145","article-title":"Influence of pedagogical beliefs and perceived trust on teachers\u2019 acceptance of educational artificial intelligence tools","volume":"39","author":"Choi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.\u2013Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2022.107468","article-title":"Towards Intelligent-TPACK: An empirical study on teachers\u2019 professional knowledge to ethically integrate artificial intelligence (AI)-based tools into education","volume":"138","author":"Celik","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tate.2025.105157","article-title":"A case study of teachers\u2019 generative artificial intelligence integration processes and factors influencing them","volume":"165","author":"Song","year":"2025","journal-title":"Teach. Teach. Educ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Awang, H., and Mansor, N.S. (2025). Exploring the potential barrier factors of AI chatbot usage among teacher trainees: From the perspective of innovation resistance theory. Sustainability, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/su17094081"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1007\/s12564-020-09640-2","article-title":"A bibliometric analysis of worldwide educational artificial intelligence research development in recent twenty years","volume":"21","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Asia Pac. Educ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2020.1848164","article-title":"University students\u2019 perception of video-based learning in times of COVID-19: A TAM\/TTF perspective","volume":"37","author":"Pal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.\u2013Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17931","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13463-2","article-title":"Teachers and AI: Understanding the factors influencing AI integration in K-12 education","volume":"30","author":"Filiz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijedudev.2023.102853","article-title":"Skills for development and vocational education and training: Current and emergent trends","volume":"102","author":"McGrath","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Dev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9755","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13197-7","article-title":"Application and effect analysis of virtual reality technology in vocational education practical training","volume":"30","author":"Long","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14273","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13312-8","article-title":"Understanding GAI risk awareness among higher vocational education students: An AI literacy perspective","volume":"30","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tele.2022.101925","article-title":"What factors contribute to the acceptance of artificial intelligence? A systematic review","volume":"77","author":"Kelly","year":"2023","journal-title":"Telemat. Inform."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-024-10174-0","article-title":"Transforming teachers\u2019 roles and agencies in the era of generative AI: Perceptions, acceptance, knowledge, and practices","volume":"34","author":"Zhai","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Sci. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15043","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13393-z","article-title":"The factors affecting teachers\u2019 adoption of AI technologies: A unified model of external and internal determinants","volume":"30","author":"Kol","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"157","article-title":"Consumers acceptance of artificially intelligent (AI) device use in service delivery","volume":"49","author":"Gursoy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jretconser.2024.103998","article-title":"The role of motivators, barriers, attractiveness, and positive emotions on consumers\u2019 intention to adopt and resist self-driving delivery robots","volume":"81","author":"Koh","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Retail. Consum. Serv."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.obhdp.2005.07.003","article-title":"Behavioral reasoning theory: Identifying new linkages underlying intentions and behavior","volume":"98","author":"Westaby","year":"2005","journal-title":"Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rogers, E.M., Singhal, A., and Quinlan, M.M. (2019). Diffusion of innovations 1. An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203710753-35"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-023-00420-7","article-title":"Acceptance of artificial intelligence among pre-service teachers: A multigroup analysis","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2175110","DOI":"10.1080\/08839514.2023.2175110","article-title":"Acceptance of artificial intelligence application in the post-covid ERA and its impact on faculty members\u2019 occupational well-being and teaching self efficacy: A path analysis using the utaut 2 model","volume":"37","author":"Alhwaiti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12609","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13353-7","article-title":"Factors influencing Chinese pre-service teachers\u2019 adoption of generative AI in teaching: An empirical study based on UTAUT2 and PLS-SEM","volume":"30","author":"Hu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13439","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13338-6","article-title":"Developing and validating an instrument for teachers\u2019 acceptance of artificial intelligence in education","volume":"30","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21582440241290013","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440241290013","article-title":"Exploring Chinese university educators\u2019 acceptance and intention to use AI tools: An application of the UTAUT2 model","volume":"14","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sage Open"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., Li, S., and Zhang, J. (2025). Understanding teachers\u2019 adoption of AI technologies: An empirical study from Chinese middle schools. Systems, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/systems13040302"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Rogers, E.M. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations\/Everett M. rogers, Simon and Schuster."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23271","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13685-4","article-title":"Does perceived risk of AI matter? Teachers\u2019 AI literacy and institutional support: Perspective from self-determination theory","volume":"30","author":"Wut","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12811","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11148-8","article-title":"Using Rogers\u2019 diffusion of innovation theory to conceptualize the mobile-learning adoption process in teacher education in the COVID-19 era","volume":"27","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2014.01.001","article-title":"Innovative alternatives take action\u2013Investigating determinants of alternative fuel vehicle adoption","volume":"61","author":"Petschnig","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121904","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.121904","article-title":"The determinants of public acceptance of autonomous vehicles: An innovation diffusion perspective","volume":"270","author":"Yuen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-020-10269-2","article-title":"Application of innovation diffusion theory to the E-learning process: Higher education context","volume":"26","author":"Pinho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, J., and Qiu, X. (2021). AI technology and online purchase intention: Structural equation model based on perceived value. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13105671"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2022.121997","article-title":"Impact of the perceived risk in influencers\u2019 product recommendations on their followers\u2019 purchase attitudes and intention","volume":"184","year":"2022","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2021.111979","article-title":"Who will adopt? Investigating the adoption intention for battery swap technology for electric vehicles","volume":"156","author":"Song","year":"2022","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jretconser.2022.102974","article-title":"Exploring the factors of using mobile ticketing applications: Perspectives from innovation resistance theory","volume":"67","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Retail. Consum. Serv."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2021.120594","article-title":"Advances in consumer innovation resistance research: A review and research agenda","volume":"166","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2020.1849403","article-title":"Exploring barriers affecting eLearning usage intentions: An NLP-based multi-method approach","volume":"41","author":"Ray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intcom.2006.01.002","article-title":"The influence of hedonic quality on the attractiveness of user interfaces of business management software","volume":"18","author":"Schrepp","year":"2006","journal-title":"Interact. Comput."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1348\/014466601164704","article-title":"The role of desires and anticipated emotions in goal-directed behaviours: Broadening and deepening the theory of planned behaviour","volume":"40","author":"Perugini","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. J. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002","DOI":"10.1080\/09585192.2022.2054281","article-title":"Empowering leadership improves employees\u2019 positive psychological states to result in more favorable behaviors","volume":"34","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.46.4.352","article-title":"Cognition and motivation in emotion","volume":"46","author":"Lazarus","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"530","article-title":"Antecedents of customers\u2019 acceptance of artificially intelligent robotic device use in hospitality services","volume":"29","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Mark. Manag."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12905-7","article-title":"Unpacking perceived risks and AI trust influences pre-service teachers\u2019 AI acceptance: A structural equation modeling-based multi-group analysis","volume":"30","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22991","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12772-2","article-title":"The interplay between teachers\u2019 trust in artificial intelligence and digital competence","volume":"29","author":"Lucas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13885-y","article-title":"Understanding generative artificial intelligence adoption in higher education faculty: Evidence from Chinese Universities and technical and vocational colleges","volume":"31","author":"Luo","year":"2026","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028085","article-title":"Identifying careless responses in survey data","volume":"17","author":"Meade","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, N., Hu, L., Kim, K.T., and Chen, M. (2026). When Generative Artificial Intelligence Becomes a Colleague: Dual Pathways of Empowerment and Depletion in University Design Teachers\u2019 Work Behaviors. Sustainability, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/su18041775"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-120710-100452","article-title":"Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it","volume":"63","author":"Podsakoff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Jiang, M., Dai, Z., and Hu, C. (2026). Empowering future educators: How school connectedness relates to employability through future work self salience and learning engagement. BMC Psychol., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-025-03822-6"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1108\/EBR-11-2018-0203","article-title":"When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM","volume":"31","author":"Hair","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Bus. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.103.3.411","article-title":"Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach","volume":"103","author":"Anderson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1177\/002224378101800104","article-title":"Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error","volume":"18","author":"Fornell","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Mark. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techsoc.2023.102284","article-title":"An examination of cloud computing adoption decisions: Rational choice or cognitive bias?","volume":"74","author":"Shuraida","year":"2023","journal-title":"Technol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-022-01323-9","article-title":"Remove barriers to technology adoption for people in poverty","volume":"6","author":"Mobarak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2023.122641","article-title":"What drives managers towards algorithm aversion and how to overcome it? Mitigating the impact of innovation resistance through technology readiness","volume":"193","author":"Mahmud","year":"2023","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21582440221099293","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440221099293","article-title":"Effects of resistance barriers to service robots on alternative attractiveness and intention to use","volume":"12","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sage Open"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.2307\/20650309","article-title":"Investigating user resistance to information systems implementation: A status quo bias perspective1","volume":"33","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1893","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-12-2022-1528","article-title":"Consumer intention to use service robots: A cognitive\u2013affective\u2013conative framework","volume":"36","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1177\/0047287521993578","article-title":"Customer acceptance of autonomous vehicles in travel and tourism","volume":"61","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Travel Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2022.121721","article-title":"The hidden power of emotions: How psychological factors influence skill development in smart technology adoption","volume":"180","author":"Gerli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.5465\/annals.2018.0057","article-title":"Human trust in artificial intelligence: Review of empirical research","volume":"14","author":"Glikson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Ann."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1177\/00187208211013988","article-title":"Trust in artificial intelligence: Meta-analytic findings","volume":"65","author":"Kaplan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1177\/00224871251325058","article-title":"Social-emotional learning and generative AI: A critical literature review and framework for teacher education","volume":"76","author":"Henriksen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Teach. Educ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3343","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12946-y","article-title":"Comprehensive professional learning for teacher agency in addressing ethical challenges of AIED: Insights from educational design research","volume":"30","author":"Mouta","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13232","article-title":"Teachers\u2019 trust in AI-powered educational technology and a professional development program to improve it","volume":"53","author":"Nazaretsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/17\/6\/544\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T04:42:56Z","timestamp":1780548176000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/17\/6\/544"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["info17060544"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info17060544","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]]}}}