{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T04:52:45Z","timestamp":1781671965137,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781654400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Information"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study analyzes cyberattack trends targeting non-profit organizations using longitudinal data collected over a three-year period within the Non-Profit Cybersecurity Incident Repository (NPCIR). Developed through a National Security Agency Center of Academic Excellence in Cyber Defense (NSA CAE-CD) designated center, the NPCIR applies an open-source intelligence (OSINT) methodology to systematically document cybersecurity incidents affecting the global non-profit sector. This study examines attack types, threat actor characteristics, sectoral distribution, and cybersecurity impacts using the Confidentiality\u2013Integrity\u2013Availability (CIA) triad framework. The results indicate that availability-related incidents, particularly ransomware and distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, constitute the most prevalent threats, while confidentiality breaches remain highly significant due to frequent data exposure incidents. Statistical analyses further demonstrate significant differences between non-profit organizations aligned with DHS CISA critical infrastructure sectors and those operating outside these sectors, especially regarding the prevalence of availability-focused attacks. In addition to its empirical contribution, the NPCIR initiative supports experiential learning opportunities for undergraduate and graduate students in cybersecurity and information technology. The resulting dataset provides actionable cyber threat intelligence for researchers, practitioners, and non-profit leaders seeking to strengthen organizational cybersecurity resilience and awareness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/info17060601","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T03:27:21Z","timestamp":1781666841000},"page":"601","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Trends in Non-Profit Cybersecurity: Analyzing Three Years of Incident Data from the NPCIR"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Stanley","family":"J. Mierzwa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Cybersecurity, Kean University, Union, NJ 07083, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6250-0583","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Paliszkiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Management Institute, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edyta","family":"Skarzy\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Management Institute, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.62273\/EUFO3601","article-title":"Feasibility of creating a non-profit and non-governmental organization cybersecurity incident reporting and dataset repository using OSINT","volume":"3","author":"Mierzwa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cybersecur. Pract. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2023.106649","article-title":"Engaging citizens in land use policy in the smart city context","volume":"129","author":"Maleszyk","year":"2023","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Mierzwa, S., and Scott, J. (2026, January 09). Cybersecurity in Non-Profit and Non-Governmental Organizations. Institute for Critical Infrastructure Technology. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/314096686."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"159","article-title":"An intuitive approach to cybersecurity risk assessment for non-governmental organizations","volume":"19","author":"Saeedi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transform. Gov. People Process Policy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.2307\/2094589","article-title":"Social change and crime rate trends: A route activity approach","volume":"44","author":"Cohen","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.2307\/248710","article-title":"MIS problems and failures: A socio-technical perspective. Part 1: The causes","volume":"1","author":"Bostrom","year":"1977","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.2307\/249019","article-title":"MIS problems and failures: A socio-technical perspective. Part II: The application of socio-technical theory","volume":"1","author":"Bostrom","year":"1977","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Y. (2019, January 27\u201329). Government management model of non-profit organizations based on e-government. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Computer and Communications Management, Bangkok, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1145\/3348445.3348464"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roshanaei, M., Krishnamurthy, P., Sinha, A., Gokhale, V., Raza, F.M., and Ramlijak, D. (2025). Enhancing cybersecurity readiness in non-profit organizations through collaborative research and innovation: A systematic literature review. Computers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers14120539"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Lazar, A. (2025, January 10). The Crucial Role of Cybersecurity in Nonprofit Organizations. Available online: https:\/\/cyberpeaceinstitute.org\/news\/cyber-poor-target-rich-the-crucial-role-of-cybersecurity-in-nonprofit-organizations\/."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"The Modern Nonprofit (2026, January 10). Nonprofits are Prime Targets for Cyberattacks\u2014Is Your Organization at Risk?. Available online: https:\/\/themodernnonprofit.com\/nonprofits-are-prime-targets-for-cyberattacks-is-your-organization-at-risk\/."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abou El Houda, Z. (2024). Cyber threat actors review: Examining the tactics and motivations of adversaries in the cyber landscape. Cyber Security for Next-Generation Computing Technologies, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003404361-5"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00fcnd\u00fcz, M.Z., Demirol, D., Da\u015f, R., and Hanbay, K. (2025). Frameworks for smart grid cyber security analysis. Cyber Security Solutions for Protecting and Building the Future Smart Grid, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-14066-2.00002-5"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.58291\/ijsecs.v4i2.422","article-title":"Cybersecurity education strategies based on open-source intelligence (OSINT) to enhance public awareness","volume":"4","author":"Hidayat","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Educ. Cult. Stud."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12407","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-023-10454-y","article-title":"Open-source intelligence: A comprehensive review of the current state, applications and future perspectives in cyber security","volume":"56","author":"Yadav","year":"2023","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"TAG Infosphere (2026, January 10). About TAG Infosphere. Available online: https:\/\/tag-infosphere.com\/about-us."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15514","DOI":"10.5430\/ijfr.v10n3p144","article-title":"Effect of employees\u2019 understanding on risk management process on risk management: A case study in a non-profit organization","volume":"10","author":"Ghani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Financ. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2026, January 10). NPCIR Project Page. Non-Profit Cyber Incident Repository (NPCIR). Available online: https:\/\/www.kean.edu\/academics\/college-business-and-public-management\/center-cybersecurity-1."}],"container-title":["Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/17\/6\/601\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T04:02:49Z","timestamp":1781668969000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2078-2489\/17\/6\/601"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]]},"references-count":18,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["info17060601"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info17060601","relation":{},"ISSN":["2078-2489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2078-2489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]]}}}