{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:44:21Z","timestamp":1760031861997,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,25]],"date-time":"2025-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742860800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Informatics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The lack of fault data is still a major concern in the area of smart maintenance, as these data are required to perform an adequate diagnostics and prognostics of the system. In some instances, fault data are adequately collected, even though the fault labels are missing. Accordingly, the development of methodologies that generate these missing fault labels is required. In this study, Markov-CVAELabeller is introduced in an attempt to address the lack of fault label challenge. Markov-CVAELabeller comprises three main phases: (1) image encoding through the application of the first-order Markov chain, (2) latent space representation through the consideration of a convolutional variational autoencoder (CVAE), and (3) clustering analysis through the implementation of k-means. Additionally, to evaluate the accuracy of the method, a convolutional neural network (CNN) is considered as part of the fault classification task. A case study is also presented to highlight the performance of the method. Specifically, a hydraulic test rig is considered to assess its condition as part of the fault diagnosis framework. Results indicate the promising applications that this type of methods can facilitate, as the average accuracy presented in this study was 97%.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/informatics12020035","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,25]],"date-time":"2025-03-25T10:48:58Z","timestamp":1742899738000},"page":"35","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Markov-CVAELabeller: A Deep Learning Approach for the Labelling of Fault Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Christian","family":"Velasco-Gallego","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n ARIES, Universidad Nebrija, Calle de Santa Cruz de Marcenado, 27, 28015 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0717-3049","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nieves","family":"Cubo-Mateo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n ARIES, Universidad Nebrija, Calle de Santa Cruz de Marcenado, 27, 28015 Madrid, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2022.04.078","article-title":"Meta-learning approaches for learning-to-learn in deep learning: A survey","volume":"494","author":"Tian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsr.2022.108031","article-title":"A review of fault location and classification methods in distribution grids","volume":"209","author":"Sapountzoglou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Electr. 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