{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T15:46:19Z","timestamp":1780674379068,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757980800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Research Council of the University of Patras"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Informatics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Governments increasingly integrate artificial intelligence (AI) into digital public services, and understanding how citizens perceive and respond to these technologies has become essential. This systematic review analyzes 30 empirical studies published from early January 2019 to mid-April 2025, following PRISMA guidelines, to map the current landscape of citizen attitudes toward AI-enabled e-government services. Guided by four research questions, the study examines: (1) the forms of AI implementation most commonly investigated, (2) the attitudinal variables used to assess user perception, (3) key factors influencing attitudes, and (4) concerns and challenges reported by users. The findings reveal that chatbots dominate current implementations, with behavioral intentions and satisfaction serving as the main outcome measures. Perceived usefulness, ease of use, trust, and perceived risk emerge as recurring determinants of positive attitudes. However, widespread concerns related to privacy and interface usability highlight persistent barriers. Overall, the review underscores the need for transparent, citizen-centered AI design and ethical safeguards to enhance acceptance and trust. It concludes that future research should address understudied applications, include vulnerable populations, and explore perceptions across diverse public sector domains.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/informatics12030098","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,17]],"date-time":"2025-09-17T05:59:51Z","timestamp":1758088791000},"page":"98","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["From E-Government to AI E-Government: A Systematic Review of Citizen Attitudes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-9035-7916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioanna","family":"Savveli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Management Science and Technology, University of Patras, 26334 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3743-3777","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Rigou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Management Science and Technology, University of Patras, 26334 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2444-9796","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefanos","family":"Balaskas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Management Science and Technology, University of Patras, 26334 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2018.1549268","article-title":"An integrated artificial intelligence framework for public management","volume":"21","author":"Wirtz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Public Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2013.06.002","article-title":"ICT, public values and transformative government: A framework and programme for research","volume":"31","author":"Bannister","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1177\/0020852314564308","article-title":"Governing the smart city: A review of the literature on smart urban governance","volume":"82","author":"Meijer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Adm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2575.2005.00183.x","article-title":"The utilization of e-government services: Citizen trust, innovation and acceptance factors","volume":"15","author":"Carter","year":"2005","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.2307\/30036540","article-title":"User Acceptance of Information Technology: Toward a Unified View","volume":"27","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2003","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2010.05.006","article-title":"e-Government Adoption Model (GAM): Differing service maturity levels","volume":"28","author":"Shareef","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2023.101834","article-title":"Do citizens trust trustworthy artificial intelligence? Experimental evidence on the limits of ethical AI measures in government","volume":"40","author":"Kleizen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"293","article-title":"Citizens\u2019 trust in AI-enabled government systems","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inf. Polity"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Alshehri, M., Drew, S., Alhussain, T., and Alghamdi, R. (2012). The Effects of Website Quality on Adoption of E-Government Service: An Empirical Study Applying UTAUT Model Using SEM. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AlAwadhi, S., and Morris, A. (2008, January 7\u201310). The Use of the UTAUT Model in the Adoption of E-Government Services in Kuwait. Proceedings of the 41st Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS 2008), Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/HICSS.2008.452"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3457607","article-title":"A Survey on Bias and Fairness in Machine Learning","volume":"54","author":"Mehrabi","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101881","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2023.101881","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in government: Concepts, standards, and a unified framework","volume":"40","author":"Straub","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"109","article-title":"Organisational Enablers of Artificial Intelligence Adoption in Public Institutions: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"22","author":"Murko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cent. Eur. Public Adm. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2021.101577","article-title":"Implications of the use of artificial intelligence in public governance: A systematic literature review and a research agenda","volume":"38","author":"Zuiderwijk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measen.2022.100484","article-title":"Use of artificial intelligence to enhance e-government services","volume":"24","author":"Kumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Meas. Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"11","article-title":"Integrating Artificial Intelligence into E-Government: Navigating Challenges, Opportunities, and Policy Implications","volume":"2","author":"Hakimi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Acad. Pract. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"678","article-title":"Artificial intelligence and decision-making in government functions: Opportunities, challenges and future research","volume":"18","author":"Alshahrani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transform. Gov. People Process Policy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caiza, G., Sangu\u00f1a, V., Tusa, N., Masaquiza, V., Ortiz, A., and Garcia, M.V. (2024). Navigating Governmental Choices: A Comprehensive Review of Artificial Intelligence\u2019s Impact on Decision-Making. Informatics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/informatics11030064"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ivic, A., Milicevic, A., Krstic, D., Kozma, N., and Havzi, S. (2022, January 24\u201326). The Challenges and Opportunities in Adopting AI, IoT and Blockchain Technology in E-Government: A Systematic Literature Review. Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference on Communications, Information, Electronic and Energy Systems (CIEES), Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIEES55704.2022.9990833"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"10","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in E-Government: Identifying and Addressing Key Challenges","volume":"10","author":"Totonchi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malays. J. Inf. Commun. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2025.02.115","article-title":"Benefits and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence in Public sector: A Literature Review","volume":"256","author":"Tveita","year":"2025","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2025.01.313","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence as a Facilitator for Public Administration Procedures: A Literature Review","volume":"253","author":"Pini","year":"2025","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arends, M., and Mawela, T. (2024, January 22\u201324). Chatbot Adoption in Public Service Delivery. Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Computer and Applications (ICCA), Cairo, Egypt.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCA62237.2024.10927776"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1080\/10630732.2023.2297665","article-title":"Understanding Chatbot Adoption in Local Governments: A Review and Framework","volume":"32","author":"Senadheera","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Urban Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"101518","article-title":"Examining factors shaping citizens\u2019 perception of artificial intelligence in government: A systematic literature review","volume":"11","author":"Azzahro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Humanit. Open"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1177\/02683962211048201","article-title":"Artificial intelligence and the conduct of literature reviews","volume":"37","author":"Wagner","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-024-10902-3","article-title":"Artificial intelligence for literature reviews: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"57","author":"Salatino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2025, March 13). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Addendum on AI and Digital Government: E-Government Survey 2024, United Nations. Available online: https:\/\/desapublications.un.org\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/2024-10\/Addendum%20on%20AI%20and%20Digital%20Government%20%20E-Government%20Survey%202024.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/10670564.2024.2333492","article-title":"Development of New Generation of Artificial Intelligence in China: When Beijing\u2019s Global Ambitions Meet Local Realities","volume":"34","author":"Khanal","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Contemp. China"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2025, April 03). UN E-Government Knowledgebase\u2013Data Center. Available online: https:\/\/publicadministration.un.org\/egovkb\/en-us\/Data-Center."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2024). United Nations E-Government Survey 2024: Accelerating Digital Transformation for Sustainable Development\u2013With the Addendum on Artificial Intelligence."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/s11192-009-0146-3","article-title":"Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping","volume":"84","author":"Waltman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Scientometrics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akkaya, C., and Krcmar, H. (2019, January 18\u201320). Potential Use of Digital Assistants by Governments for Citizen Services: The Case of Germany. Proceedings of the 20th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1145\/3325112.3325241"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zabaleta, K., Lago, A.B., Lopez-De-Ipina, D., Di Modica, G., Santos De La Camara, R., and Pistore, M. (2019, January 19\u201323). Combining Human and Machine Intelligence to foster wider adoption of e-services. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE SmartWorld, Ubiquitous Intelligence & Computing, Advanced & Trusted Computing, Scalable Computing & Communications, Cloud & Big Data Computing, Internet of People and Smart City Innovation (SmartWorld\/SCALCOM\/UIC\/ATC\/CBDCom\/IOP\/SCI), Leicester, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartWorld-UIC-ATC-SCALCOM-IOP-SCI.2019.00326"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stamatis, A., Gerontas, A., Dasyras, A., and Tambouris, E. (2020, January 23\u201325). Using chatbots and life events to provide public service information. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance, Athens, Greece.","DOI":"10.1145\/3428502.3428509"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antoniadis, P., and Tambouris, E. (2021, January 6\u20138). PassBot: A chatbot for providing information on Getting a Greek Passport. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance, Athens, Greece.","DOI":"10.1145\/3494193.3494233"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Kurosu, M. (2021). \u2018Exploring Citizens\u2019 Attitudes Towards Voice-Based Government Services in Switzerland. International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"532","article-title":"Design and behavior science in government-to-citizens ognitive-communication: A study towards an inclusive framework","volume":"15","author":"Chohan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transform. Gov. People Process Policy"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2021.1988236","article-title":"It Is Me, Chatbot Working to Address the COVID-19 Outbreak-Related Mental Health Issues in China. User Experience, Satisfaction, and Influencing Factors","volume":"38","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.\u2013Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alhalabi, M., Al Dhaghari, B., Hussein, N., Ehtesham, H., Laconsay, J., Khelifi, A., Salem, A., and Ghazal, M. (2022, January 8\u20139). M-Government Smart Service using AI Chatbots: Evidence from the UAE. Proceedings of the 2022 2nd International Mobile, Intelligent, and Ubiquitous Computing Conference (MIUCC), New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MIUCC55081.2022.9781777"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patsoulis, G., Promikyridis, R., and Tambouris, E. (2021, January 26\u201328). Integration of chatbots with Knowledge Graphs in eGovernment: The case of Getting a Passport. Proceedings of the 25th Pan-Hellenic Conference on Informatics, in PCI \u201921, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3503823.3503901"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suter, V., Meckel, M., Shahrezaye, M., and Steinacker, L. (2022, January 4\u20137). AI Suffrage: A four-country survey on the acceptance of an automated voting system. Proceedings of the 55th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.24251\/HICSS.2022.290"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Papagiannidis, S., Alamanos, E., Gupta, S., Dwivedi, Y.K., M\u00e4ntym\u00e4ki, M., and Pappas, I.O. (2022). The Role of Quality, Trust, and Empowerment in Explaining Satisfaction and Use of Chatbots in e-government. The Role of Digital Technologies in Shaping the Post-Pandemic World, Conference on e-Business, e-Services and e-Society, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, 13\u201314 September 2022, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-15342-6"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2116","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2022.2063934","article-title":"AI-driven public services and the privacy paradox: Do citizens really care about their privacy?","volume":"25","author":"Willems","year":"2022","journal-title":"Public Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"20552076221090031","article-title":"\u201cI am chatbot, your virtual mental health adviser.\u201d What drives citizens\u2019 satisfaction and continuance intention toward mental health chatbots during the COVID-19 pandemic? An empirical study in China","volume":"8","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Digit. Health"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F\u00f8lstad, A., Araujo, T., Papadopoulos, S., Law, E.L.-C., Luger, E., Goodwin, M., and Brandtzaeg, P.B. (2023). Chatbots as Part of Digital Government Service Provision\u2014A User Perspective. Chatbot Research and Design, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-25581-6"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2023.101876","article-title":"\u2018Citizens\u2019 acceptance of artificial intelligence in public services: Evidence from a conjoint experiment about processing permit applications","volume":"40","author":"Horvath","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2022.101785","article-title":"Citizen preferences and government chatbot social characteristics: Evidence from a discrete choice experiment","volume":"40","author":"Ju","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y., Myeong, S., and Ahn, M.J. (2023). Living Labs for AI-Enabled Public Services: Functional Determinants, User Satisfaction, and Continued Use. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15118672"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pribadi, U., Ibrahim, M.A., and Kurniawan, C. (2023, January 20\u201323). Pivotal Factors Affecting Citizens in Using Smart Government Services in Indonesia. Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress on Information and Communication Technology, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-3243-6_89"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.53422\/JDMS.2024.111911","article-title":"A Study on Assessees Perception Towards AIPowered Income Tax Filing in Chennai City","volume":"11","author":"Srikanth","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Dev. Econ. Manag. Res. Stud."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4948","DOI":"10.1108\/K-06-2023-1011","article-title":"Factors influencing initial public acceptance of integrating the ChatGPT-type model with government services","volume":"53","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Kybernetes"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4018\/IJEGR.349733","article-title":"Understanding the Determinants of Using Government AI-Chatbots by Citizens in Saudi Arabia","volume":"20","author":"Abed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Electron. Gov. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"1825","article-title":"Chatbots and Citizen Satisfaction: Examining the Role of Trust in AI-Chatbots as a Moderating Variable","volume":"13","author":"Boukhari","year":"2024","journal-title":"TEM J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.21511\/im.20(3).2024.18","article-title":"The transformative power of recommender systems in enhancing citizens\u2019 satisfaction: Evidence from the Moroccan public sector","volume":"20","author":"Salmi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Innov. Mark."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Y., and Dong, P. (2024, January 11\u201314). Emotion Perception, Public Expectations, and Public Satisfaction: A Behaviour Experimental Study on Government Chatbots in Government Service Scenarios. Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research, in dg.o \u201924, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3657054.3657062"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.3390\/jtaer19020043","article-title":"Factors Influencing User Favorability of Government Chatbots on Digital Government Interaction Platforms across Different Scenarios","volume":"19","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Theor. Appl. Electron. Commer. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2024.101957","article-title":"Should government chatbots behave like civil servants? The effect of chatbot identity characteristics on citizen experience","volume":"41","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, J., and Naranjo-Zolotov, M. (2024). Exploring Potential Drivers of Citizen\u2019s Acceptance of Artificial Intelligence Use in e-Government. World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-45648-0_33"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pislaru, M., Ciprian, V., Ivascu, L., and Mircea, I. (2024). Citizen-Centric Governance: Enhancing Citizen Engagement through Artificial Intelligence Tools. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16072686"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2024.108413","article-title":"The decision-making by citizens: Evaluating the effects of rule-driven and learning-driven automated responders on citizen-initiated contact","volume":"161","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"428","article-title":"Achieving effectiveness of public service in AI-enabled service from public value theory: Does human\u2013AI collaboration matters?","volume":"19","author":"Rulandari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transform. Gov. People Process Policy"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) (2025, September 01). CASP Qualitative Checklist. n.d. Available online: https:\/\/casp-uk.net\/casp-tools-checklists\/systematic-review-checklist\/."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lincoln, Y.S., and Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry, SAGE.","DOI":"10.1016\/0147-1767(85)90062-8"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Bommasani, R., Hudson, D.A., Adeli, E., Altman, R., Arora, S., von Arx, S., Bernstein, M.S., Bohg, J., Bosselut, A., and Brunskill, E. (2021). On the Opportunities and Risks of Foundation Models. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salah, M., Abdelfattah, F., and Al Halbusi, H. (2023). Generative Artificial Intelligence (ChatGPT & Bard) in Public Administration Research: A Double-Edged Sword for Street-Level Bureaucracy Studies. Int. J. Public Adm., 1\u20137.","DOI":"10.1080\/01900692.2023.2274801"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1108\/DTS-03-2024-0024","article-title":"Navigating the integration of ChatGPT in UAE\u2019s government sector: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"4","author":"Goher","year":"2025","journal-title":"Digit. Transform. Soc."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-023-01840-9","article-title":"How will the state think with ChatGPT? The challenges of generative artificial intelligence for public administrations","volume":"40","author":"Cantens","year":"2025","journal-title":"AI Soc."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dreyling, R., Koppel, T., Tammet, T., and Pappel, I. (2024). Challenges of Generative AI Chatbots in Public Services\u2014An Integrative Review. Social Science Research Network, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4850714"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Cambridge Dictionary (2025, April 19). Attitude. Available online: https:\/\/dictionary.cambridge.org\/dictionary\/english\/attitude."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Fishbein, M., and Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research, Addison-Wesley."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"143","article-title":"A Critical Review of Models and Theories in Field of Individual Acceptance of Technology","volume":"9","author":"Hassan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Hybrid Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Simon, B. (2001). Wissensmedien im Bildungssektor. Eine Akzeptanzuntersuchung an Hochschulen, WU Vienna."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"3","article-title":"User acceptance of information technology: Theories and models","volume":"30","author":"Dillon","year":"1996","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Inf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Robert, W.Z. (2000). Individual Acceptance of Information Technologies. Framing the Domains of IT Management: Projecting the Future Through the Past, Pinnaflex Educational Resources."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1108\/JD-12-2021-0241","article-title":"Workplace literacy skills\u2014How information and digital literacy affect adoption of digital technology","volume":"78","author":"Nikou","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Doc."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1177\/0049124108327128","article-title":"Selection Bias in Web Surveys and the Use of Propensity Scores","volume":"37","author":"Schonlau","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sociol. Methods Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1177\/0894439315572985","article-title":"Does the Inclusion of Non-Internet Households in a Web Panel Reduce Coverage Bias?","volume":"34","author":"Eckman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kouam, F., and William, A. (2024). Assimilating Mediating and Moderating Variables in Academic Research: Role and Significance. Soc. Sci. Res. Netw., 143.","DOI":"10.47119\/IJRP1001431220246119"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2014.09.073","article-title":"The Impact of Personality on Technology Acceptance: A Study on Smart Phone Users","volume":"150","author":"Koc","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia\u2013Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1057\/ejis.2014.10","article-title":"Five-factor model personality traits as predictors of perceived and actual usage of technology","volume":"24","author":"Barnett","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2011.553740","article-title":"Personality and technology acceptance: The influence of personality factors on the core constructs of the Technology Acceptance Model","volume":"32","author":"Svendsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-40498-6_23","article-title":"Understanding Diversity\u2013The Impact of Personality on Technology Acceptance","volume":"Volume 8120","author":"Marsden","year":"2013","journal-title":"Human-Computer Interaction\u2013INTERACT 2013"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2019). Hello, World: Artificial Intelligence and Its Use in the Public Sector, OECD Working Papers on Public Governance."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2022). United Nations E-Government Survey 2022: The Future of Digital Government, United Nations Publications. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1080\/07421222.2003.11045748","article-title":"The DeLone and McLean Model of Information Systems Success: A Ten-Year Update","volume":"19","author":"Delone","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Manag. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/S2212-5671(16)00079-4","article-title":"The Effects of Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use on Continuance Intention to Use E-Government","volume":"35","author":"Hamid","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Econ. Financ."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2018.08.013","article-title":"An empirical investigation on consumers\u2019 intentions towards autonomous driving","volume":"95","author":"Panagiotopoulos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jretconser.2020.102207","article-title":"Shopping intention at AI-powered automated retail stores (AIPARS)","volume":"57","author":"Pillai","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Retail. Consum. Serv."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1080\/10864415.2003.11044275","article-title":"Consumer Acceptance of Electronic Commerce: Integrating Trust and Risk with the Technology Acceptance Model","volume":"7","author":"Pavlou","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Electron. Commer."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2025, June 10). OECD Recommendations on Artificial Intelligence, Available online: https:\/\/wecglobal.org\/uploads\/2019\/07\/2019_OECD_Recommendations-AI.pdf."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence (2025, June 10). Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI, Available online: https:\/\/digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu\/en\/library\/ethics-guidelines-trustworthy-ai."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Janssen, A., Gr\u00fctzner, L., and Breitner, M.H. (2021, January 12\u201315). Why do Chatbots fail? A Critical Success Factors Analysis. Proceedings of the ICIS 2021 Proceedings, Austin, TX, USA. Available online: https:\/\/aisel.aisnet.org\/icis2021\/hci_robot\/hci_robot\/6."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Helal, M., Holthaus, P., Lakatos, G., and Amirabdollahian, F. (2024). Chat Failures and Troubles: Reasons and Solutions. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C.-H., Yeh, S.-F., Chang, T.-J., Tsai, M.-H., Chen, K., and Chang, Y.-J. (2020, January 25\u201330). A Conversation Analysis of Non-Progress and Coping Strategies with a Banking Task-Oriented Chatbot. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3313831.3376209"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.17705\/1thci.00143","article-title":"Understanding the Impact that Response Failure has on How Users Perceive Anthropomorphic Conversational Service Agents: Insights from an Online Experiment","volume":"13","author":"Diederich","year":"2021","journal-title":"AIS Trans. Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mi\u0161i\u0107, J., Van Est, R., and Kool, L. (2025). Good governance of public sector AI: A combined value framework for good order and a good society. AI Ethics, 1\u201315.","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-025-00751-3"},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"UNESCO (2025, August 24). Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. Available online: https:\/\/unesdoc.unesco.org\/ark:\/48223\/pf0000381137."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dubber, M.D., Pasquale, F., and Das, S. (2020). The Oxford Handbook of Ethics of AI, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780190067397.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2202\/1944-2866.1076","article-title":"The Trouble with Transparency: A Critical Review of Openness in e-Government","volume":"3","author":"Bannister","year":"2011","journal-title":"Policy Internet"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patter.2022.100489","article-title":"An Artificial Intelligence Life Cycle: From Conception to Production","volume":"3","author":"Alahakoon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Patterns"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-70274-7_25","article-title":"From the Evolution of Public Data Ecosystems to the Evolving Horizons of the Forward-Looking Intelligent Public Data Ecosystem Empowered by Emerging Technologies","volume":"Volume 14841","author":"Janssen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Electronic Government"},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Vericir (2025, August 25). Ethics & AI in Public Administration: Ensuring Trust, Transparency, and Fairness. Available online: https:\/\/archit3ct.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/Ethics-AI-in-Public-Administration_-Ensuring-Trust-Transparency-and-Fairness.pdf."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"European Union (2025, August 28). Regulation (EU) 2024\/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 Laying down Harmonised Rules on Artificial Intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act). Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX:32024R1689."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (2025, August 29). Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence. n.d. Available online: https:\/\/gpai.ai."}],"container-title":["Informatics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9709\/12\/3\/98\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:46:45Z","timestamp":1760035605000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9709\/12\/3\/98"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"references-count":106,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["informatics12030098"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/informatics12030098","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9709"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2227-9709","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]}}}