{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:46:35Z","timestamp":1760060795805,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758585600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Korea National University of Transportation Industry\u2013Academy Cooperation Foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Informatics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The axle box of a railway vehicle is a critical component, and its maintenance involves complex procedures that are difficult to convey with traditional, document-based manuals. To address these challenges, augmented reality (AR)-based educational content was developed to digitize maintenance training and enhance its effectiveness. The content\u2019s implementation was guided by a systematic storyboard, which was based on interviews with skilled staff. It also utilized specialized algorithms to improve the accuracy of mechanical measurement work and the efficiency of User Interface (UI) generation. The user experience of the developed content was comprehensively evaluated using a combination of two methods: a formative evaluation through direct observation of work performance and a post-survey administered to 40 participants. As a result of the evaluation, the mean work success rate was 62.5%, demonstrating the content\u2019s high efficiency as a training tool. The overall mean score from the post-survey was 4.11, indicating high user satisfaction and perceived usefulness. A one-way ANOVA was performed and revealed a statistically significant difference in post-survey scores among the four age groups. The developed content was found to be more effective for younger participants. The results confirm the high potential of AR as a digital educational method for complex maintenance work.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/informatics12040101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T14:32:53Z","timestamp":1758637973000},"page":"101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Methodology for Digitalizing Railway Vehicle Maintenance Training Using Augmented Reality"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7675-4381","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hwi-Jin","family":"Kwon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Maintenance Team, Seoul Metro, Seoul 04806, Republic of Korea"}]},{"given":"Ji-Hun","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Railroad Vehicle Driving System Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation, Uiwang 16106, Republic of Korea"}]},{"given":"Kyung-Suk","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Smart Railroad System Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation, Uiwang 16106, Republic of Korea"}]},{"given":"Chul-Su","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Railroad Vehicle System Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation, Uiwang 16106, Republic of Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.7782\/JKSR.2013.16.3.163","article-title":"A Study for the Development of the Reliability\/Availability Management System of the Urban Transit Vehicles (I)","volume":"16","author":"Park","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Korean Soc. Railw"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwon, H.J., Lee, S.I., Park, J.H., and Kim, C.S. (2021). Design of Augmented Reality Training Content for Railway Vehicle Maintenance Focusing on the Axle-Mounted Disc Brake System. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11199090"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.24284\/JKOSUR.2022.03.10.1.1231","article-title":"A Study on the Realistic Content for Air Compressor Maintenance of the Ur-ban Railway Vehicle","volume":"10","author":"Kwon","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Korean Soc. Urban Railw"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, G.H., Cha, H.J., Chung, I.S., and Kim, C.S. (June, January 31). A Study on the Development of Augmented Reality Contents for Air Compressor of Railway Vehicles. Proceedings of the 2023 Prognostics and Health Management Conference (PHM), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/PHM58589.2023.00019"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2018.08.007","article-title":"A systematic review of Augmented Reality content-related techniques for knowledge transfer in maintenance applications","volume":"103","author":"Amo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Ind."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simon, J., Gogolak, L., Sarosi, J., and F\u00fcrstner, I. (2023). Augmented Reality Based Distant Maintenance Approach. Actuators, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/act12070302"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malta, A., Farinha, T., and Mendes, M. (2023). Augmented reality in maintenance\u2014History and perspectives. J. Imaging, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging9070142"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1699","article-title":"An authorable context-aware augmented reality system to assist the maintenance technicians","volume":"66","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mourtzis, D., Siatras, V., and Angelopoulos, J. (2020). Real-Time Remote Maintenance Support Based on Augmented Reality (AR). Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10051855"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"63","article-title":"The Future of Augmented Reality: Emerging Trends and Challenges","volume":"4","author":"Bodhwani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Landscape"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, C.C., Chang, A.C., and Chu, Y.L. (2022, January 22\u201323). Application of augmented reality for aviation equipment inspection and maintenance training. Proceedings of the 2022 8th International Conference on Applied System Innovation (ICASI), Nantou, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASI55125.2022.9774490"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Song, J.W. (2021). Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) Based Plant Work Support Technology for Smart Work Environment. [Masters\u2019s Thesis, University of Sungkyunkwan]. Available online: https:\/\/dcollection.skku.edu\/srch\/srchDetail\/000000162059."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borro, D., Suescun, A., Brazalez, A., Gonz\u00e1lez, J.M., Ortega, E., and Gonz\u00e1lez, E. (2021). WARM: Wearable AR and tablet-based assistant systems for bus maintenance. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11041443"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.7734\/COSEIK.2019.32.3.191","article-title":"A Study on Pipe Model Registration for Augmented Reality Based O&M Environment Improving","volume":"32","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Comput. Struct. Eng. Inst. Korea"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"327","article-title":"A Study on a CMS Platform for AR-based Remote Collaboration in a Smart Factory","volume":"16","author":"Lim","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Digit. Converg."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Jung, W. (2020). Application of Location-Based Augmented Reality to Support Operation and Maintenance in Indoor Environment of Power Plant. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, University of Inha]. Available online: http:\/\/inha.dcollection.net\/common\/orgView\/200000288305."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2478\/ttt-2023-0007","article-title":"Possibilities of Implementing Augmented Reality in Railway Freight Transport","volume":"19","author":"Bulkova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transp. Tech. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scheffer, S., Martinetti, A., Damgrave, R., Thiede, S., and van Dongen, L. (2021). How to make augmented reality a tool for railway maintenance operations: Operator 4.0 perspective. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11062656"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.7782\/JKSR.2021.24.7.590","article-title":"Augmented Reality-based safety inspection framework for safety management in railway bridge and tunnel projects","volume":"24","author":"Jeon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Korean Soc. Railw"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kostolani, M., Murin, J., and Kozak, S. (2019, January 11\u201314). Intelligent predictive maintenance control using augmented reality. Proceedings of the 2019 22nd International Conference on Process Control (PC19), Strbske Pleso, Slovakia.","DOI":"10.1109\/PC.2019.8815042"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1007\/s40436-023-00479-5","article-title":"Holorailway: An augmented reality system to support assembly operations in the railway industry","volume":"12","author":"Garcia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, K.S., and Kim, C.S. (2024). Development and Usability Evaluation of Augmented Reality Content for Light Maintenance Training of Air Spring for Electric Multiple Unit. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14177702"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Syed, T.A., Siddiqui, M.S., Abdullah, H.B., Jan, S., Namoun, A., Alzahrani, A., Nadeem, A., and Alkhodre, A.B. (2022). In-Depth Re-view of Augmented Reality: Tracking Technologies, Development Tools, AR Displays, Collaborative AR, and Security Concerns. Robot. Appl. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23010146"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6917","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2698164","article-title":"Mobile Augmented Reality Survey: From Where We Are to Where We Go","volume":"23","author":"Chatzopoulos","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46173","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3273605","article-title":"Development and Evaluation of Augmented Reality Learning Content for Pneumatic Flow: Case Study on Brake Operating Unit","volume":"11","author":"Kwon","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"1","article-title":"Mobile Augmented Reality: User Interfaces, Frameworks, and Intelligence","volume":"55","author":"Cao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acm. Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su, X., and Cao, J. (2020, January 21\u201325). 5G edge enhanced mobile augmented reality. Proceedings of the 26th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3372224.3417315"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"139","article-title":"Structuralization of User Flow System in the Mobile Augmented Reality-Focused on Mobile and Spatial characteristics","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Korean Basic Art"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3431","DOI":"10.9728\/dcs.2024.25.11.3431","article-title":"Development of Digital Content for Electric Multiple Unit Maintenance: A Case Study on the Semi-Permanent Coupler","volume":"25","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Digi Conten. Soc."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Baek, J.H., Yoon, S.H., Um, B.K., Han, S.B., and Um, D.J. (2018, January 16\u201318). Study on the Institutionalization for Rolling Stock Maintenance Engineer and Maintenance Organization Certification. Proceedings of the 2018 Spring Conference of the Korean Society for Railway, Jeju, Republic of Korea. Available online: https:\/\/www.dbpia.co.kr\/journal\/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE07455000&language=ko_KR&hasTopBanner=true&language=ko_KR&hasTopBanner=true."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"779","article-title":"A case study on user experience evaluation of a virtual reality training content for advanced metering infrastructure","volume":"24","author":"You","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Educ. Inf. Media"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2017.06.002","article-title":"A systematic review of augmented reality applications in maintenance","volume":"49","author":"Palmarini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Robot. Comput. Integr. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dirin, A., and Laine, T.H. (2018). User Experience in Mobile Augmented Reality: Emotions, Challenges, Opportunities and Best Practices. Computers, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/computers7020033"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valentini, L., Grandi, F., Peruzzini, M., and Pellicciari, M. (2023). UX-Driven Methodology to Design Usable Augmented Reality Applications for Maintenance. Leveraging Transdisciplinary Engineering in a Changing and Connected World, IOS Press.","DOI":"10.3233\/ATDE230596"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.9728\/dcs.2021.22.5.791","article-title":"Development and Evaluation of a Virtual Maintenance Training System for Thermal Power Plant Boiler","volume":"22","author":"Shin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Digi Conten. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jebb, A.T., Ng, V., and Tay, L. (2021). A review of key Likert scale development advances: 1995\u20132019. Front. Psychol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.637547"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1007\/s10459-010-9222-y","article-title":"Likert scales, levels of measurement and the \u201claws\u201d of statistics","volume":"15","author":"Norman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Health Sci. Educ."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"104","article-title":"Response interpolation and scale sensitivity: Evidence against 5-point scales","volume":"5","author":"Finstad","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Usability Stud."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.14519\/jksot.2018.26.2.07","article-title":"A Validation Study of the Gross Motor Scale of Korean Version of Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development","volume":"26","author":"Ahn","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Korean Soc. Occup. Therap."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Kang, S.H. (2014). The Effects of Empowerment on Accountability. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, University of Seoul]. Available online: https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10371\/130416."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.3746\/jkfn.2021.50.3.307","article-title":"Quality characteristics of grilled fish paste formulation added with hot water extract powder from Lentinus edodes using one-way ANOVA","volume":"50","author":"Oh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.5116\/ijme.4dfb.8dfd","article-title":"Making sense of Cronbach\u2019s alpha","volume":"2","author":"Tavakol","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Educ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/job.1960","article-title":"Cronbach\u2019s alpha reliability: Interval estimation, hypothesis testing, and sample size planning","volume":"36","author":"Boenett","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Organ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12008","article-title":"A mixed methods assessment of students\u2019 flow experiences during a mobile augmented reality science game","volume":"29","author":"Bressler","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Learn."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2015.12.014","article-title":"Augmented places: An impact of embodied historical experience on attitudes towards places","volume":"57","author":"Oleksy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."}],"container-title":["Informatics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9709\/12\/4\/101\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:47:49Z","timestamp":1760035669000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2227-9709\/12\/4\/101"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["informatics12040101"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/informatics12040101","relation":{},"ISSN":["2227-9709"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2227-9709"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]}}}