{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T13:41:32Z","timestamp":1787319692734,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,8]],"date-time":"2025-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751932800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCP"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The emergence of quantum computing and Shor\u2019s algorithm necessitates an imminent shift from current public key cryptography techniques to post-quantum-robust techniques. The NIST has responded by standardising Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) algorithms, with ML-KEM (FIPS-203) slated to replace ECDH (Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman) for key exchange. A key practical concern for PQC adoption is energy consumption. This paper introduces a new framework for measuring PQC energy consumption on a Raspberry Pi when performing key generation. The framework uses both the available traditional methods and the newly standardised ML-KEM algorithm via the commonly utilised OpenSSL library.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcp5030042","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,8]],"date-time":"2025-07-08T02:25:53Z","timestamp":1751941553000},"page":"42","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Energy Consumption Framework and Analysis of Post-Quantum Key-Generation on Embedded Devices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8208-1565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J. Cameron","family":"Patterson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Blockpass ID Lab, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh EH10 5DT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0809-3523","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William J.","family":"Buchanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Blockpass ID Lab, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh EH10 5DT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-4703-1747","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Callum","family":"Turino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Blockpass ID Lab, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh EH10 5DT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2001). Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) (Standard No. FIPS 197)."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1976.1055638","article-title":"New directions in cryptography","volume":"22","author":"Diffie","year":"1976","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Boneh, D., and Shoup, V. (2025, April 24). A Graduate Course in Applied Cryptography, Available online: https:\/\/toc.cryptobook.us\/."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barnes, R., Bhargavan, K., Lipp, B., and Wood, C. (2022). Hybrid Public Key Encryption. Internet Eng. Task Force (IETF) RFC 9180.","DOI":"10.17487\/RFC9180"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1145\/359340.359342","article-title":"A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems","volume":"21","author":"Rivest","year":"1978","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1090\/S0025-5718-1987-0866109-5","article-title":"Elliptic curve cryptosystems","volume":"48","author":"Koblitz","year":"1987","journal-title":"Math. Comput."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, V.S. (1986). Use of elliptic curves in cryptography. Advances in Cryptology, Proceedings of the CRYPTO\u2019 85, Santa Barbara, CA, USA, 18\u201322 August 1985, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-39799-X_31"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Shor, P.W. (1994, January 20\u201322). Algorithms for quantum computation: Discrete logarithms and factoring. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, Santa Fe, NM, USA."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Computer Security Resource Center (CSRC) (2025, April 24). Post-Quantum Cryptography, Available online: https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/projects\/post-quantum-cryptography."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"The OpenSSL Project (2025, May 07). OpenSSL Library, 2025. Released 8 April 2025. Available online: https:\/\/www.openssl.org\/."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Buchanan, W.J. (2025, May 07). PQC Key Encapsulation Mechanism (KEM) Speed Tests. Available online: https:\/\/asecuritysite.com\/pqc\/pqc_kem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tasopoulos, G., Dimopoulos, C., Fournaris, A.P., Zhao, R.K., Sakzad, A., and Steinfeld, R. (2023, January 9\u201311). Energy Consumption Evaluation of Post-Quantum TLS 1.3 for Resource-Constrained Embedded Devices. Proceedings of the 20th ACM International Conference on Computing Frontiers, CF \u201923, Bologna, Italy.","DOI":"10.1145\/3587135.3592821"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Raspberry Pi Holdings plc (2025, July 04). Annual Report and Accounts 2024. Available online: https:\/\/investors.raspberrypi.com\/reports\/7\/document."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1147\/rd.53.0183","article-title":"Irreversibility and Heat Generation in the Computing Process","volume":"5","author":"Landauer","year":"1961","journal-title":"IBM J. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10872","article-title":"Experimental verification of Landauer\u2019s principle linking information and thermodynamics","volume":"483","author":"Arakelyan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02084158","article-title":"The thermodynamics of computation\u2014A review","volume":"21","author":"Bennett","year":"1982","journal-title":"Int. J. Theor. Phys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aydeger, A., Zeydan, E., Yadav, A.K., Hemachandra, K.T., and Liyanage, M. (2024, January 2\u20134). Towards a Quantum-Resilient Future: Strategies for Transitioning to Post-Quantum Cryptography. Proceedings of the 2024 15th International Conference on Network of the Future (NoF), Castelldefels, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/NoF62948.2024.10741441"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(1977). Data Encryption Standard (Standard No. FIPS 46)."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karn, P., and Metzger, P. (1995). The ESP Triple DES Transform. Internet Eng. Task Force (IETF) RFC 1851.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc1851"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1109\/6.591665","article-title":"Moore\u2019s law: Past, present and future","volume":"34","author":"Schaller","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Spectr."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Mansfield, E., Barnes, B., Kline, R., Vladar, A., Obeng, Y., and Davydov, A. (2023). International Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS\u2122) 2023 Edition, IEEE. Available online: https:\/\/irds.ieee.org\/editions\/2023\/20-roadmap-2023-edition\/122-irds%E2%84%A2-2023-editorial."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Australian Cyber Security Centre (ACSC) (2025, April 24). Guidelines for Cryptography, Available online: https:\/\/www.cyber.gov.au\/resources-business-and-government\/essential-cybersecurity\/ism\/cybersecurity-guidelines\/guidelines-cryptography."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) (2025, April 24). Timelines for Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncsc.gov.uk\/guidance\/timelines-for-migration-to-post-quantum-cryptography."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2024). Threshold Timelines and Recommendations for the Transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography Standards (Standard No. NIST IR 8547)."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Cybersecurity Agencies of 18 EU Member States (2025, April 24). Securing Tomorrow, Today: Transitioning to Post-Quantum Cryptography. Available online: https:\/\/www.bsi.bund.de\/SharedDocs\/Downloads\/EN\/BSI\/Crypto\/PQC-joint-statement.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"European Commission (2025, April 24). Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the Transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography. Available online: https:\/\/digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu\/en\/library\/recommendation-coordinated-implementation-roadmap-transition-post-quantum-cryptography."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Weinstein, Y., and Rodenburg, B. (2025). Quantum Computing: Quantifying Current State to Assess Cybersecurity Threats, The MITRE Corporation. Available online: https:\/\/www.mitre.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2025-01\/PR-24-3812-Quantum-Computing-Quantifying-Current-State-Assess-Cybersecurity-Threats.pdf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grover, L.K. (1996, January 22\u201324). A fast quantum mechanical algorithm for database search. Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, Philadelphia, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/237814.237866"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lange, T., and Takagi, T. (2017). Post-quantum RSA. Post-Quantum Cryptography, Proceedings of the 8th International Workshop, PQCrypto 2017, Utrecht, The Netherlands, 26\u201328 June 2017, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-59879-6"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2024). NIST SP 800-197 (Initial Preliminary Draft) PRE-DRAFT Call for Comments: NIST Proposes to Standardize a Wider Variant of AES (Standard No. NIST IR 8547). Available online: https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/pubs\/sp\/800\/197\/iprd."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2025, April 24). NIST Releases First 3 Finalized Post-Quantum Encryption Standards. National Institute of Standards and Technology: Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 2024. Standards: FIPS 203, FIPS 204 and FIPS 205, Available online: https:\/\/www.nist.gov\/news-events\/news\/2024\/08\/nist-releases-first-3-finalized-post-quantum-encryption-standards."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2024). Module-Lattice-Based Key-Encap-sulation Mechanism Standard (Standard No. FIPS 203)."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2025, April 24). Status Report on the Fourth Round of the NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization Process, Available online: https:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/ir\/2025\/NIST.IR.8545.pdf."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2024). Stateless Hash-Based Digital Signature Standard (Standard No. FIPS 204)."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2023). SPHINCS+ Signature Scheme (Standard No. FIPS 205)."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paquin, C., Stebila, D., and Tamvada, G. (2020, January 15\u201317). Benchmarking post-quantum cryptography in TLS. Proceedings of the Post-Quantum Cryptography: 11th International Conference, PQ-Crypto 2020, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-44223-1_5"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Barton, J., Buchanan, W.J., Pitropakis, N., Sayeed, D.S., and Abramson, W. (2019, January 23\u201325). Post Quantum Cryptography Analysis of TLS Tunneling on a Constrained Device. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy, Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6ffel, M., Lauer, F., Rheinl\u00e4nder, C.C., and Wehn, N. (2021, January 18\u201321). On the energy costs of post-quantum KEMs in TLS-based low-power secure IoT. Proceedings of the International Conference on Internet-of-Things Design and Implementation, Nashville, TN, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3450268.3453528"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71295","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3077843","article-title":"Energy efficiency analysis of post-quantum cryptographic algorithms","volume":"9","author":"Roma","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Patterson, J.C. (2025, May 05). Cameron Patterson (Paper GitHub Respository)\u2014Source Code, Source Data and Results. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/billbuchanan\/energy_pqc."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"TheHWCave (2025, May 05). TheHWcave\/TC66 (GitHub Respository)\u2014Library for Data Collection from TC66(C) Energy Monitor. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/TheHWcave."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"TheHWcave (2025, May 05). TheHWcave\u2014YouTube Channel. Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/@TheHWcave."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Barker, E., Roginsky, A., and Vassilev, S. (2020). Recommendation for Key Management: Part 1\u2014General, National Institute of Standards and Technology. Special Publication 800-57 Part 1 Revision 5."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Dragon, S. (2025, May 06). 12 SSL Stats You Should Know in 2025. Available online: https:\/\/ssldragon.com\/blog\/ssl-stats\/."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Howarth, J. (2025, July 02). 30+ VPN Statistics, Trends & Facts (2024\u20132027). Available online: https:\/\/explodingtopics.com\/blog\/vpn-stats."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (2025, May 06). Quarterly Energy Prices, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/collections\/quarterly-energy-prices."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amdahl, G.M. (1967, January 18\u201320). Validity of the Single Processor Approach to Achieving Large Scale Computing Capabilities. Proceedings of the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference, AFIPS \u201967, Atlantic City, NJ, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1465482.1465560"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Centreon (2025, May 06). Best Practices to Ensure IT and OT Uptime. Centreon Blog., Available online: https:\/\/www.centreon.com\/post-type\/best-practices\/."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Legion of the Bouncy Castle (2025, May 06). Bouncy Castle: Open-source Cryptographic APIs for Java and C#. Available online: https:\/\/www.bouncycastle.org\/."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Buchanan, W.J. (2025, April 26). Security and So Many Things. Available online: https:\/\/asecuritysite.com\/."}],"container-title":["Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2624-800X\/5\/3\/42\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:06:14Z","timestamp":1760033174000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2624-800X\/5\/3\/42"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,8]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jcp5030042"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcp5030042","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-800X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-800X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,8]]}}}