{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T16:14:19Z","timestamp":1786724059380,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,17]],"date-time":"2025-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758067200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCP"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The growing reliance on satellite-based infrastructures for communication, navigation, defense, and environmental monitoring has magnified the urgency of securing Space Information Networks (SINs) against cyber threats. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the vulnerabilities, threat vectors, and advanced countermeasures impacting SINs. Key vulnerabilities, including system complexity, use of Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) components, lack of standardized security frameworks, and emerging quantum threats, are critically analyzed. This paper classifies cyber threats into active and passive categories, highlighting real-world case studies such as Denial-of-Service attacks, message modification, eavesdropping, and satellite transponder hijacking. A detailed survey of countermeasures follows, focusing on AI-driven intrusion detection, federated learning approaches, deep learning techniques, random routing algorithms, and quantum-resistant encryption. This study emphasizes the pressing need for integrated, resilient, and proactive security architectures tailored to the unique constraints of space systems. It concludes by identifying research gaps and recommending future directions to enhance the resilience of SINs against evolving cyber threats in an increasingly contested space environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcp5030076","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,17]],"date-time":"2025-09-17T13:03:02Z","timestamp":1758114182000},"page":"76","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Cyber Attacks on Space Information Networks: Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Countermeasures for Satellite Security"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-7804-6337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Afsana","family":"Sharmin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bahar Uddin","family":"Mahmud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5787-0380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Norun","family":"Nabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Washington University of Science and Technology (WUST), Alexandria, VA 22314, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mujiba","family":"Shaima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Monroe University, Bronx, NY 10468, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6316-5334","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md Jobair Hossain","family":"Faruk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, New York Institute of Technology, Broadway, NY 10023, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thangavel, K., Plotnek, J.J., Gardi, A., and Sabbatini, R. (2022, January 18\u201322). Understanding and Investigating Adversary Threats and Countermeasures in the Context of Space Cybersecurity. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE\/AIAA 41st Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC), Portsmouth, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/DASC55683.2022.9925759"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.21741\/9781644902677-41","article-title":"HACK: A Holistic Modeling Approach for CubeSat Cyberattacks","volume":"33","author":"Borgia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Proc."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"109144","article-title":"LEO Satellite Constellation for 5G and Beyond: How to Address the Challenges?","volume":"214","author":"Yue","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calabrese, M., Kavallieratos, G., and Falco, G. (2024, January 8\u201312). A Hosted Payload Cyber Attack Against Satellites. Proceedings of the AIAA SciTech 2024 Forum, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2024-0270"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahzad, S.S., Joiner, K., Qiao, L., Deane, F., and Plested, J. (2024). Cyber Resilience Limitations in Space Systems Design Process: Insights from Space Designers. Systems, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/systems12100434"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Willbold, J., Sciberras, F., Strohmeier, M., and Lenders, V. (2024, January 2\u20139). Satellite Cybersecurity Reconnaissance: Strategies and Their Real-World Evaluation. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/AERO58975.2024.10521192"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3853","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3301626","article-title":"Deep-Federated-Learning-Based Threat Detection Model for Extreme Satellite Communications","volume":"11","author":"Salim","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, M., Park, S., and Lee, Y. (2024). A Survey on Satellite Communication System Security. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24092897"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214852","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3041641","article-title":"Distributed Network Intrusion Detection System in Satellite-Terrestrial Integrated Networks Using Federated Learning","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akande, A.J., Foo, E., Hou, Z., and Li, Q. (2023). Cybersecurity for Satellite Smart Critical Infrastructure, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-29845-5_1"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jero, S., Furgala, J., Heller, M., Nahill, B., Mergendahl, S., and Skowyra, R. (2024, January 1). Securing the Satellite Software Stack. Proceedings of the Workshop on Security of Space and Satellite Systems (SpaceSec) 2024, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.14722\/spacesec.2024.23057"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhuo, M., Liu, L., Zhou, S., and Tian, Z. (2021). Survey on security issues of routing and anomaly detection for space information networks. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-01638-z"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2023.3296160","article-title":"Low Earth Orbit satellite security and reliability: Issues, solutions, and the road ahead","volume":"25","author":"Yue","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fratty, R., Saar, Y., Kumar, R., and Arnon, S. (2023). Random Routing Algorithm for Enhancing the Cybersecurity of LEO Satellite Networks. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12030518"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3237","DOI":"10.15680\/IJIRCCE.2023.1104284","article-title":"Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to Enhance Satellite Security","volume":"12","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Innov. Res. Comput. Commun. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Moustafa, N., Khan, I.A., Hassanin, M., Ormrod, D., Pi, D., Razzak, I., and Slay, J. (2022). DFSat: Deep Federated Learning for Identifying Cyber Threats in IoT-based Satellite Networks. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Wu, Y., Yang, Q., and Zhang, J. (2021, January 17\u201320). Anomaly Detection of Spacecraft Telemetry Data Using Temporal Convolution Networks. Proceedings of the IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Glasgow, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC50364.2021.9459840"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"103617","article-title":"CANSat-IDS: A Distributed Intrusion Detection System for Controller Area Networks in Satellites","volume":"138","author":"Almohri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2024.108083","article-title":"Explainable anomaly detection in spacecraft telemetry","volume":"133","author":"Santos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babic, K., Balic, M., and Begusic, D. (2025). GNSS Spoofing Detection Based on Wavelets and Machine Learning. Electronics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics14122391"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"Machine Learning Methods for Spacecraft Telemetry Mining","volume":"7","author":"Shahzad","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1007\/s10922-023-09767-8","article-title":"Deep Learning-Based Hybrid Intrusion Detection Systems to Protect Satellite Networks","volume":"31","author":"Azar","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Netw. Syst. Manag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toubi, A., and Hajami, A. (2024, January 24\u201326). Vulnerability Assessment and Mitigation Strategies for Satellite Communication Systems Under DDoS Attacks. Proceedings of the International Conference on Global Aeronautical Engineering and Satellite Technology 2024 (GAST\u201924), Marrakesh, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/GAST60528.2024.10520744"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, F., Yan, X., Zhang, Y., Yang, J., Cao, A., Liu, R., and Zhao, Y. (2025). Mitigating DDoS Attacks in LEO Satellite Networks Through Bottleneck Minimize Routing. Electronics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics14122376"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J., Eom, T., Kim, H., Park, H., Yoon, Z., and Park, J. (2025). Threat Vector\u2013Hierarchical Attack Representation Model-Based Threat Modeling and Security Assessment for Satellite Networks. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15052751"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.37391\/ijeer-120223","article-title":"A Smart Secure Model for Detection of DDoS Malicious Traces in Integrated LEO Satellite\u2013Terrestrial Communications","volume":"12","author":"Panigrahi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Electr. Electron. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, Y., Wu, Q., Lai, Z., Gu, C., Li, H., Li, Y., and Liu, J. (2025, January 24\u201328). Time-varying Bottleneck Links in LEO Satellite Networks: Identification, Exploits, and Countermeasures. Proceedings of the Network and Distributed System Security Symposium (NDSS), San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2025.230109"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2022.109011","article-title":"Secure Routing for LEO Satellite Network Survivability","volume":"211","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2022.109246","article-title":"Satellite-Based Communications Security: A Survey of Threats, Solutions, and Research Challenges","volume":"216","author":"Tedeschi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1186\/s13638-024-02417-w","article-title":"Advanced Security Framework for Low Earth Orbit Satellites in Space Information Network","volume":"2024","author":"Abdrabou","year":"2024","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsse.2020.08.004","article-title":"Space Situational Awareness through Blockchain Technology","volume":"7","author":"Surdi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Space Saf. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5153","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2022.3187389","article-title":"An Efficient and Privacy-Preserving Blockchain-Based Authentication Scheme for Low Earth Orbit Satellite-Assisted Internet of Things","volume":"58","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113558","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3104875","article-title":"Effective Methods and Performance Analysis of a Satellite Network Security Mechanism Based on Blockchain Technology","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2025.103817","article-title":"Zero Trust-Based Authentication for Inter-Satellite Links in NextGen Low Earth Orbit Networks","volume":"174","author":"Farrea","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1109\/MCE.2023.3262904","article-title":"AI-Oriented Two-Phase Multifactor Authentication in SAGINs: Prospects and Challenges","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Consum. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collins, R.J., Amiri, R., Fujiwara, M., Honjo, T., Shimizu, K., Tamaki, K., Takeoka, M., Sasaki, M., Andersson, E., and Buller, G.S. (2017). Experimental Demonstration of Quantum Digital Signatures over 43 dB Channel Loss Using Differential Phase Shift Quantum Key Distribution. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-03401-9"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadj5873","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adj5873","article-title":"Real-Time Gigahertz Free-Space Quantum Key Distribution within an Emulated Satellite Overpass","volume":"9","author":"Roger","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-022-00525-3","article-title":"Finite Key Effects in Satellite Quantum Key Distribution","volume":"8","author":"Sidhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"NPJ Quantum Inf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1002\/sat.1455","article-title":"A Post-Quantum Secure Construction of an Authentication Protocol for Satellite Communication","volume":"41","author":"Dharminder","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Satell. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"030101","DOI":"10.1103\/PRXQuantum.5.030101","article-title":"Finite-Resource Performance of Small-Satellite-Based Quantum-Key-Distribution Missions","volume":"5","author":"Islam","year":"2024","journal-title":"PRX Quantum"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-03093-8","article-title":"An Integrated Space-to-Ground Quantum Communication Network over 4600 Kilometres","volume":"589","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Mohamed Ihsan, P.M., Arun, A.R., Vetriselvi, V., Gautham Kumar, G., and Praveen Kumar, R. (2024, January 24\u201326). QCrypt: Advanced Quantum-based Image Encryption for Secure Satellite Data Transmission. Proceedings of the 2024 Third International Conference on Electrical, Electronics, Information and Communication Technologies (ICEEICT), Trichirappalli, India."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khare, S., and Singh, N. (2024, January 5\u20137). Securing Satellite Communication: Exploring Cybersecurity Measures in Satellite Networks. Proceedings of the 2024 OPJU International Technology Conference (OTCON) on Smart Computing for Innovation and Advancement in Industry 4.0, Raigarh, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/OTCON60325.2024.10687961"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsu, J., and Falco, G. (2023, January 6\u20138). Space Booby Traps: Hacking Back and Assured Cyber Deterrence in Space. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE International Conference on Assured Autonomy (ICAA), Laurel, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAA58325.2023.00024"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buenneke, R.H., Abramson, R.L., Shearer, T.D., and McArthur, P.B. (2006, January 21\u201324). Best Practices for Protection of Commercial Satellite Communications Infrastructure. Proceedings of the AIAA, Keystone, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2006-5386"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wan, M., Fang, J., Guo, C., Geng, L., Liu, Y., Ma, W., Xu, C., and Su, M. (2025, January 6\u201311). A Federated Learning-Based Intrusion Detection System for Satellite-Terrestrial Integrated Networks. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP), Hyderabad, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP49660.2025.10890330"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2019.2927852","article-title":"Ensuring Cybersecure Telemetry and Telecommand in Small Satellites: Recent Trends and Empirical Propositions","volume":"34","author":"Saha","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"11234","article-title":"Protecting Satellite Communications and Smart Cities from AI-Powered Cyber Threats Using Deepfake Detection and Quantum Computing","volume":"13","author":"Tariq","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Access"}],"container-title":["Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2624-800X\/5\/3\/76\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:47:08Z","timestamp":1760035628000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2624-800X\/5\/3\/76"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,17]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jcp5030076"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcp5030076","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-800X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-800X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,17]]}}}