{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T21:33:00Z","timestamp":1781213580620,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762128000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Laus Informatica srl","award":["23\/05\/24"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23\/05\/24"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JCP"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rapid digitalization of work and daily life has introduced a wide range of online threats, from common hazards such as malware and phishing to emerging challenges posed by artificial intelligence (AI). While technical aspects of cybersecurity have received extensive attention, less is known about how individuals perceive digital risks and how these perceptions shape protective behaviors. Building on the psychometric paradigm, this study investigated the perception of seven digital threats among a sample of 300 Italian workers employed in IT and non-IT sectors. Participants rated each hazard on dread and unknown risk dimensions and reported their cybersecurity expertise. Optimism bias and proactive awareness were also detected. Cluster analyses revealed four profiles based on different levels of dread and unknown risk ratings. The four profiles also differed in reported levels of expertise, optimism bias, and proactive awareness. Notably, AI was perceived as the least familiar and most uncertain hazard across groups, underscoring its salience in shaping digital risk perceptions. These findings highlight the heterogeneity of digital risk perception and suggest that tailored communication and training strategies, rather than one-size-fits-all approaches, are essential to fostering safer online practices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcp5040093","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T19:30:27Z","timestamp":1762198227000},"page":"93","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Perceiving Digital Threats and Artificial Intelligence: A Psychometric Approach to Cyber Risk"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3640-4499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana","family":"Carbone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34124 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0675-0876","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Marcatto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34124 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Mistichelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34124 Trieste, Italy"},{"name":"Laus Informatica srl, Sesto San Giovanni, 20099 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4304-5087","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Donatella","family":"Ferrante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34124 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farka\u0161, I. (2024). Transforming Cognition and Human Society in the Digital Age. Biol. Theory.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13752-024-00483-3"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aslan, \u00d6., Aktu\u011f, S.S., Ozkan-Okay, M., Yilmaz, A.A., and Akin, E. (2023). A Comprehensive Review of Cyber Security Vulnerabilities, Threats, Attacks, and Solutions. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12061333"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"196","article-title":"Systematic Analysis Based on Conflux of Machine Learning and Internet of Things Using Bibliometric Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Chahal","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Intell. Syst. Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3171","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-019-04319-2","article-title":"Cyber Security Threats and Vulnerabilities: A Systematic Mapping Study","volume":"45","author":"Humayun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720815585906","article-title":"The Role of Human Factors\/Ergonomics in the Science of Security: Decision Making and Action Selection in Cyberspace","volume":"57","author":"Proctor","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edeh, N.C. (2023). Cybersecurity and Human Factors: A Literature Review. Cybersecurity for Decision Makers, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003319887-3"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dss.2008.11.010","article-title":"Studying Users\u2019 Computer Security Behavior: A Health Belief Perspective","volume":"46","author":"Ng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Decis. Support. Syst."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2009.04.006","article-title":"Human and Organizational Factors in Computer and Information Security: Pathways to Vulnerabilities","volume":"28","author":"Kraemer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"394","article-title":"Understanding Security Behaviors in Personal Computer Usage: A Threat Avoidance Perspective","volume":"11","author":"Liang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1080\/13669877.2025.2539109","article-title":"Human Behavior in Cybersecurity: An Opportunity for Risk Research","volume":"28","author":"Schaltegger","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Risk Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3563507","article-title":"Perception of Risk","volume":"236","author":"Slovic","year":"1987","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0272-4332.2004.00433.x","article-title":"Risk as Analysis and Risk as Feelings: Some Thoughts about Affect, Reason, Risk, and Rationality","volume":"24","author":"Slovic","year":"2004","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1057\/palgrave.rm.8240172","article-title":"Explaining Individual Risk Perception: The Case of Nuclear Waste","volume":"6","year":"2004","journal-title":"Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Savadori, L., and Lauriola, M. (2021). Risk Perception and Protective Behaviors During the Rise of the COVID-19 Outbreak in Italy. Front. Psychol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.577331"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00143739","article-title":"How Safe Is Safe Enough? A Psychometric Study of Attitudes towards Technological Risks and Benefits","volume":"9","author":"Fischhoff","year":"1978","journal-title":"Policy Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1539-6924.1996.tb01095.x","article-title":"Public Perceptions of Everyday Food Hazards: A Psychometric Study","volume":"16","author":"Rowe","year":"1996","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caserotti, M., Girardi, P., Rubaltelli, E., Tasso, A., Lotto, L., and Gavaruzzi, T. (2021). Associations of COVID-19 Risk Perception with Vaccine Hesitancy over Time for Italian Residents. Soc. Sci. Med., 272.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.113688"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"25","article-title":"Risk Communication, Risk Perception, and Public Health","volume":"103","author":"Aakko","year":"2004","journal-title":"WMJ"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1539-6924.2012.01942.x","article-title":"The Risk Perception Paradox\u2014Implications for Governance and Communication of Natural Hazards","volume":"33","author":"Wachinger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., and Li, Y. (2023). Factors Influencing Public Risk Perception of Emerging Technologies: A Meta-Analysis. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15053939"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2017.05.038","article-title":"Risk Perceptions of Cyber-Security and Precautionary Behaviour","volume":"75","author":"Jeske","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"370","article-title":"Perceived Risk and Efficacy Beliefs as Motivators of Change","volume":"29","author":"Rimal","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hum. Commun. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1080\/13669877.2023.2249927","article-title":"Using Artificial Intelligence (AI)? Risk and Opportunity Perception of AI Predict People\u2019s Willingness to Use AI","volume":"26","author":"Schwesig","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Risk Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.39.5.806","article-title":"Unrealistic Optimism about Future Life Events","volume":"39","author":"Weinstein","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Personal. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2686031","article-title":"Optimistic Biases About Personal Risks","volume":"246","author":"Weinstein","year":"1989","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1080\/08870449408407475","article-title":"Optimism, Vulnerability, and Self-Beliefs as Health-Related Cognitions: A Systematic Overview","volume":"9","author":"Schwarzer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Psychol. Health"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.12799\/rcphn.2023.00360","article-title":"Optimistic Bias: Concept Analysis","volume":"35","author":"Shin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Res. Community Public Health Nurs."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2244","DOI":"10.1108\/INTR-04-2022-0238","article-title":"The Impact of Ignorance and Bias on Information Security Protection Motivation: A Case of e-Waste Handling","volume":"33","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1108\/ITP-09-2019-0458","article-title":"E-Waste Information Security Protection Motivation: The Role of Optimism Bias","volume":"35","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inf. Technol. People"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2011.12.001","article-title":"Unrealistic Optimism on Information Security Management","volume":"31","author":"Rhee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fatoki, J.G., Shen, Z., and Mora-Monge, C.A. (2024). Optimism amid Risk: How Non-IT Employees\u2019 Beliefs Affect Cybersecurity Behavior. Comput. Secur., 141.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2024.103812"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3832","DOI":"10.1109\/TEM.2025.3604850","article-title":"Charting the Unseen: A Systematic Review of Risk Perception in Emerging Technologies","volume":"72","author":"Feng","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1080\/10580530.2018.1477292","article-title":"\u201cJust How Risky Is It Anyway?\u201d The Role of Risk Perception and Trust on Click-through Intention","volume":"35","author":"Ogbanufe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Manag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parkin, S., Kuhn, K., and Shaikh, S.A. (2023). Executive Decision-Makers: A Scenario-Based Approach to Assessing Organizational Cyber-Risk Perception. J. Cybersecur., 9.","DOI":"10.1093\/cybsec\/tyad018"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.41.4.1149","article-title":"Statistical Power Analyses Using G*Power 3.1: Tests for Correlation and Regression Analyses","volume":"41","author":"Faul","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barattucci, M., Ramaci, T., Matera, S., Vella, F., Gallina, V., and Vitale, E. (2025). Differences in Risk Perception Between the Construction and Agriculture Sectors: An Exploratory Study with a Focus on Carcinogenic Risk. La Med. Del Lav., 116.","DOI":"10.23749\/mdl.v116i3.16796"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Egelman, S., and Peer, E. (2015, January 18). Scaling the Security Wall: Developing a Security Behavior Intentions Scale (SeBIS). Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Seoul, Republic of Korea.","DOI":"10.1145\/2702123.2702249"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144895","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3122433","article-title":"Cyber Risk Perception in the Maritime Domain: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"9","author":"Larsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2017.10.007","article-title":"Security and Privacy in Online Social Networking: Risk Perceptions and Precautionary Behaviour","volume":"78","author":"Jansen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Rhee, H.-S., Ryu, Y., and Kim, C.-T. (2005, January 11\u201314). I Am Fine but You Are Not: Optimistic Bias and Illusion of Control on Information Security. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Systems, Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2004.12.005","article-title":"Unrealistic Optimism in Internet Events","volume":"23","author":"Campbell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1080\/23742917.2017.1345271","article-title":"Self-Reported Secure and Insecure Cyber Behaviour: Factor Structure and Associations with Personality Factors","volume":"1","author":"Russell","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cyber Secur. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"36","article-title":"An Exploratory Study of Cyber Hygiene Behaviors and Knowledge","volume":"42","author":"Cain","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Inf. Secur. Appl."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1109\/TEM.2025.3534088","article-title":"Identifying the Public\u2019s Beliefs About Generative Artificial Intelligence: A Big Data Approach","volume":"72","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Eng. Manag."}],"container-title":["Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2624-800X\/5\/4\/93\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T20:05:52Z","timestamp":1762200352000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2624-800X\/5\/4\/93"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["jcp5040093"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcp5040093","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-800X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-800X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]]}}}