{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T08:43:15Z","timestamp":1778920995015,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,20]],"date-time":"2015-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1447977600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Imaging"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent technological developments help us to acquire high quality 3D measurements of our urban environment. However, these measurements, which come as point clouds or Digital Surface Models (DSM), do not directly give 3D geometrical models of buildings. In addition to that, they are not suitable for fast 3D rendering. Therefore, detection and 3D reconstruction of buildings is an important research topic. We introduce a new active shape fitting algorithm for generating building models. Two significant improvements of the introduced method compared to our previous active shape algorithm are: (1) here, active shapes are initialized as cubes; and (2) the new energy function is computed by measuring the distances of the vertical cube faces to the building facade points and also by measuring the mean distance between the rooftop points and the top face of the cube. The proposed method helps to obtain 3D building models automatically even when the facade borders are difficult to detect because of neighboring trees or other objects. For testing the proposed approach, we use Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data of an area in Delft, The Netherlands. We compare the proposed 3D active shape fitting method with a previously developed 2D method. The results show the possible usage of the algorithm when simple and easy-to-render 3D models of large cities are needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging1010156","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,24]],"date-time":"2015-11-24T01:57:02Z","timestamp":1448330222000},"page":"156-179","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Active Shapes for Automatic 3D Modeling of Buildings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"1","author":[{"given":"Beril","family":"Sirmacek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, Delft 2628CN, The Netherlands"}]},{"given":"Roderik","family":"Lindenbergh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, Delft 2628CN, The Netherlands"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1109\/83.481683","article-title":"Delineating buildings by grouping lines with MRFs","volume":"5","author":"Krishnamachari","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saeedi, P., and Zwick, H. (2008, January 17\u201320). Automatic building detection in aerial and satellite images. Proceedings of the International Conference on Control, Automation, Robotics and Visualization ICARCV, Hanoi, Vietnam.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICARCV.2008.4795590"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Canu, D., and Gambotto, J.S.J. (1996, January 16\u201319). Reconstruction of buildings from multiple high resolution images. Proceedings of the International Conference on Image Processing, Lausanne, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Arefi, H., Engels, J., Hahn, M., and Mayer, H. Levels of Detail in 3D Building Reconstruction from LIDAR Data. Available online: http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.182.7121."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Liu, L., Stamos, I., Yu, G., Wolberg, G., and Zokai, S. (2006, January 17\u201322). Multiview geometry for texture mapping 2D images onto 3D range data. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00054921","article-title":"Recognizing solid objects by alignment with an image","volume":"2","author":"Huttenlocher","year":"1990","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1023\/B:VISI.0000029664.99615.94","article-title":"Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints","volume":"60","author":"Lowe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Agam, G., and Chen, X. (2014, January 23\u201328). Alignment of 3D building models with satellite images using extended chamfer matching. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) Workshops, Columbus, OH, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPRW.2014.115"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1109\/34.232073","article-title":"Comparing images using the Hausdorf distance","volume":"15","author":"Huttenlocher","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1109\/34.993558","article-title":"Shape matching and object recognition using shape contexts","volume":"4","author":"Belongie","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mastin, A., Kepner, J., and Fisher, J. (2009, January 20\u201325). Automatic registration of LIDAR and optical images of urban scenes. Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Conference, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPRW.2009.5206539"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaminsky, R., Snavely, N., Seitz, S., and Szeliski, R. (2009, January 20\u201325). Alignment of 3D point clouds to over head images. Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2009.5204180"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sirmacek, B., and Unsalan, C. (2008, January 27\u201329). Building detection from aerial imagery using invariant color features and shadow information. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Computer and Information and Sciences ISCIS, Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCIS.2008.4717854"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Sirmacek, B., D\u2019Angelo, P., and Reinartz, P. (2010, January 11\u201313). Detecting complex building shapes in panchromatic satellite images for digital elevation model enhancement. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop on Modeling of Optical Airborne and Space-borne Sensors, Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2011.2178399","article-title":"Performance evaluation for 3D city model generation of six different DSMs from air- and spaceborne sensors","volume":"5","author":"Sirmacek","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, H., and Brenner, C. (2011, January 11\u201313). Rule-based roof plane detection and segmentation from laser point clouds. Proceedings of the Joint Urban Remote Sensing Event (JURSE 2011), Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/JURSE.2011.5764777"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.02.004","article-title":"A generative statistical approach to automatic 3D building roof reconstruction from laser scanning data","volume":"79","author":"Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rottensteiner, F., Sohn, G., Jung, J., Gerke, M., Baillard, C., Benitez, S., and Breitkopf, U. (2012). The ISPRS benchmark on urban object classification and 3d building reconstruction. ISPRS Annu. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-I-3-293-2012"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-34263-9_12","article-title":"Modeling residential urban areas from dense aerial LiDAR point clouds","volume":"7633","author":"Zhou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Media"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"37","article-title":"3D building model reconstruction from point clouds and ground plans","volume":"34","author":"Vosselman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Kada, M., and McKinley, L. 3D building reconstruction from lidar based on a cell decomposition approach. Available online: http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.177.2904&rep=rep&type=pdf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7323","DOI":"10.3390\/s8117323","article-title":"A comprehensive automated 3D approach for building extraction, reconstruction and regularization from airborne laser scanning point clouds","volume":"8","author":"Dorninger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/11949534_4","article-title":"The generation of 3D tree models by the integration of multi-sensor data","volume":"4319","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Image Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Sonka, M., Hlavac, V., and Boyle, R. (1999). Image Processing, Analysis and Machine Vision, PWS Publications. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sirmacek, B., Taubenboeck, H., and Reinartz, P. (September, January 25). A novel 3D city modeling approach for satellite stereo data using 3D active shape models on DSMs. Proceedings of the XXII International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Congress, Melbourne, Australia.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XXXIX-B3-325-2012"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Yung, K.T., and Rosenfeld, A. (1996). Topological Algorithms for Digital Image Processing, Elsevier Science, B.V."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.1986.4767851","article-title":"A computational approach to edge detection","volume":"8","author":"Canny","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.01.007","article-title":"A graph edit dictionary for correcting errors in roof topology graphs reconstructred from point clouds","volume":"93","author":"Xiong","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zang, A., Zhang, X., Chen, X., and Agam, G. (2015). Learning-based roof style classification in 2D satellite images. Proc. SPIE, 9473.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2180393"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8659.00701","article-title":"Automatic integration of facade textures into 3D building models with a projective geometry based line clustering","volume":"21","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Graph. Forum"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hesch, J., and Roumeliotis, S. (2011, January 6\u201313). A Direct Least-Squares (DLS) method for PnP. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2011.6126266"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Actual Hoogtebestand Nederland Actual Height Model of The Netherlands. Available online: http:\/www.ahn.nl\/english.php."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Swart, L. (2010). Management of Massive Point Cloud Data: Wet and Dry, The Nederlandse Commissie voor Geodesie."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8198","DOI":"10.3390\/s100908198","article-title":"Assessment of relative accuracy of AHN2 laser scanning data using planar features","volume":"10","author":"Soudarissanane","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"}],"container-title":["Journal of Imaging"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/1\/1\/156\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:52:33Z","timestamp":1760215953000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/1\/1\/156"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,20]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12]]}},"alternative-id":["jimaging1010156"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jimaging1010156","relation":{},"ISSN":["2313-433X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2313-433X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,11,20]]}}}