{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T18:32:09Z","timestamp":1770834729863,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]],"date-time":"2025-01-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738195200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Lab, NMSK, IREC, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Imaging"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As 3D printing technology expands rapidly in medical disciplines, the accuracy evaluation of 3D-printed medical models is required. However, no established guidelines to assess the dimensional error of anatomical models exist. This study aims to evaluate the dimensional accuracy of medical models 3D-printed using a hospital-based Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printer. Two dissected cadaveric right hands were marked with Titanium Kirshner wires to identify landmarks on the heads and bases of all metacarpals and proximal and middle phalanges. Both hands were scanned using a Cone Beam Computed Tomography scanner. Image post-processing and segmentation were performed on 3D Slicer software. Hand models were 3D-printed using a professional hospital-based FDM 3D printer. Manual measurements of all landmarks marked on both pairs of cadaveric and 3D-printed hands were taken by two independent observers using a digital caliper. The Mean Absolute Difference (MAD) and Mean Dimensional Error (MDE) were calculated. Our results showed an acceptable level of dimensional accuracy. The overall study\u2019s MAD was 0.32 mm (\u00b10.34), and its MDE was 1.03% (\u00b10.83). These values fall within the recommended range of errors. A high level of dimensional accuracy of the 3D-printed anatomical models was achieved, suggesting their reliability and suitability for medical applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging11020039","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]],"date-time":"2025-01-30T11:08:23Z","timestamp":1738235303000},"page":"39","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Dimensional Accuracy Assessment of Medical Anatomical Models Produced by Hospital-Based Fused Deposition Modeling 3D Printer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4382-8831","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kevin","family":"Wendo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuro Musculo Skeletal Lab (NMSK), Institut de Recherche Exp\u00e9rimentale et Clinique (IREC), Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Lab (OMFS Lab), NMSK, IREC, Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, 1200 Brussels, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0468-7076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catherine","family":"Behets","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Morphology Lab (MORF), IREC, Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8736-1236","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivier","family":"Barbier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuro Musculo Skeletal Lab (NMSK), Institut de Recherche Exp\u00e9rimentale et Clinique (IREC), Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, 1200 Brussels, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8123-2545","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benoit","family":"Herman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Mechanics, Materials and Civil Engineering, Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1348 Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6670-886X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Schubert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuro Musculo Skeletal Lab (NMSK), Institut de Recherche Exp\u00e9rimentale et Clinique (IREC), Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, 1200 Brussels, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Benoit","family":"Raucent","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Mechanics, Materials and Civil Engineering, Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1348 Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2211-7731","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raphael","family":"Olszewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuro Musculo Skeletal Lab (NMSK), Institut de Recherche Exp\u00e9rimentale et Clinique (IREC), Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Lab (OMFS Lab), NMSK, IREC, Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, 1200 Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Perioperative Dentistry, L. Rydygiera Collegium Medicum, Nicolaus Copernicus University, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1148\/rg.2015140320","article-title":"Medical 3D printing for the radiologist","volume":"35","author":"Mitsouras","year":"2015","journal-title":"Radiographics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2018.02.012","article-title":"Additive manufacturing (3D printing): A review of materials, methods, applications and challenges","volume":"143","author":"Ngo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2573","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-016-8968-7","article-title":"An economic analysis comparing the cost feasibility of replacing injection molding processes with emerging additive manufacturing techniques","volume":"88","author":"Franchetti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110812","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4048193","article-title":"Additive manufacturing review: Early past to current practice","volume":"142","author":"Beaman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.14733\/cadaps.2021.144-155","article-title":"Generative design: An explorative study","volume":"18","author":"Buonamici","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Des. Appl."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keller, M., Guebeli, A., Thieringer, F., and Honigmann, P. (2021). Overview of In-Hospital 3D Printing and Practical Applications in Hand Surgery. BioMed Res. Int., 2021.","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/4650245"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, P., Stanislaus, I., McGahon, C., Pattabathula, K., Bryant, S., Pinto, N., Jenkins, J., and Meinert, C. (2023). Quality assurance in 3D-printing: A dimensional accuracy study of patient-specific 3D-printed vascular anatomical models. Front. Med. Technol., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmedt.2023.1097850"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1424","DOI":"10.1148\/rg.2017160165","article-title":"Measuring and establishing the accuracy and reproducibility of 3D printed medical models","volume":"37","author":"George","year":"2017","journal-title":"Radiographics"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s41205-017-0014-3","article-title":"Anatomic modeling using 3D printing: Quality assurance and optimization","volume":"3","author":"Leng","year":"2017","journal-title":"3D Print. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"60","article-title":"Dimensional accuracy of the skull models produced by rapid prototyping technology using stereolithography apparatus","volume":"1","author":"Nizam","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Orofac. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Msallem, B., Sharma, N., Cao, S., Halbeisen, F.S., Zeilhofer, H.F., and Thieringer, F.M. (2020). Evaluation of the dimensional accuracy of 3D-printed anatomical mandibular models using FFF, SLA, SLS, MJ, and BJ printing technology. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9030817"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dorweiler, B., Baqu\u00e9, P.E., Chaban, R., Ghazy, A., and Salem, O. (2021). Quality control in 3D printing: Accuracy analysis of 3D-printed models of patient-specific anatomy. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14041021"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1038\/sj\/dmfr\/4600646","article-title":"Comparison of three-dimensional computed tomography with rapid prototype models in the management of coronoid hyperplasia","volume":"30","author":"Asaumi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dentomaxillofac. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aanat.2020.151629","article-title":"Accuracy evaluation of patient-specific 3D-printed aortic anatomy","volume":"234","author":"Kaschwich","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Anat.-Anat. Anz."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hansur.2019.09.006","article-title":"3D printing in hand surgery","volume":"38","author":"Liverneaux","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hand Surg. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1007\/s00068-018-0970-3","article-title":"Validation study of 3D-printed anatomical models using 2 PLA printers for preoperative planning in trauma surgery, a human cadaver study","volume":"45","author":"Brouwers","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Trauma Emerg. Surg."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"432","article-title":"The accuracy of 3D printed carpal bones generated from cadaveric specimens","volume":"9","author":"Lebowitz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Bone Jt. Surg."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kabelitz, M., Furrer, P.R., Hodel, S., Canonica, S., and Schweizer, A. (2022). 3D planning and patient specific instrumentation for intraarticular corrective osteotomy of trapeziometacarpal-, metacarpal and finger joints. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12891-022-05946-x"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kohlhauser, M., Vasilyeva, A., Kamolz, L.P., B\u00fcrger, H.K., and Schintler, M. (2023). Metacarpophalangeal Joint Reconstruction of a Complex Hand Injury with a Vascularized Lateral Femoral Condyle Flap Using an Individualized 3D Printed Model\u2014A Case Report. J. Pers. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm13111570"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.CC.21.00723","article-title":"Distal Phalangeal Replacement Using a Patient-Specific 3D-Printed Prosthesis: A Case Report","volume":"12","author":"Penello","year":"2022","journal-title":"JBJS Case Connect."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"128","article-title":"3D-printed cable tie-assisted static progressive splints for fixed flexion contractures of the proximal phalangeal joint: A proof of concept study","volume":"22","author":"Rocher","year":"2023","journal-title":"SA Orthop. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25","DOI":"10.1097\/JPO.0000000000000468","article-title":"Additive Manufacturing and Upper-Limb Orthoses: A Scoping Review","volume":"36","author":"Gehner","year":"2024","journal-title":"JPO J. Prosthet. Orthot."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wendo, K., Barbier, O., Bollen, X., Schubert, T., Lejeune, T., Raucent, B., and Olszewski, R. (2022). Open-source 3D printing in the prosthetic field\u2014The case of upper limb prostheses: A review. Machines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines10060413"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcot.2018.07.022","article-title":"3D printing and its applications in orthopaedic trauma: A technological marvel","volume":"9","author":"Lal","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Orthop. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1007\/s00256-021-03883-9","article-title":"The use of cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) in radiocarpal fractures: A diagnostic test accuracy meta-analysis","volume":"51","author":"Fitzpatrick","year":"2022","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2017.10.010","article-title":"Diagnostic value of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) in occult scaphoid and wrist fractures","volume":"97","author":"Borel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1007\/s00256-015-2105-9","article-title":"Using cone-beam CT as a low-dose 3D imaging technique for the extremities: Initial experience in 50 subjects","volume":"44","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhsa.2019.07.014","article-title":"The role of cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) scan for detection and follow-up of traumatic wrist pathologies","volume":"44","author":"Pallaver","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hand Surg."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2024, November 01). Slicer. Available online: https:\/\/www.slicer.org\/."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kikinis, R., Pieper, S.D., and Vosburgh, K.G. (2013). 3D Slicer: A platform for subject-specific image analysis, visualization, and clinical support. Intraoperative Imaging and Image-Guided Therapy, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-7657-3_19"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"943","article-title":"Experimental validation of plastic mandible models produced by a \u201clow-cost\u201d 3-dimensional fused deposition modeling printer","volume":"22","author":"Maschio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit. Int. Med. J. Exp. Clin. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1054\/ijom.2000.0135","article-title":"Analysis of errors in medical rapid prototyping models","volume":"31","author":"Choi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"e1646","article-title":"Dimensional error in rapid prototyping with open source software and low-cost 3D-printer","volume":"6","year":"2018","journal-title":"Plast. Reconstr. Surg.\u2013Glob. Open"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1177\/229255031502300201","article-title":"Accuracy of medical models made by consumer-grade fused deposition modelling printers","volume":"23","author":"Petropolis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Plast. Surg."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s10278-022-00614-x","article-title":"Medical 3D printing dimensional accuracy for multi-pathological anatomical models 3D printed using material extrusion","volume":"35","author":"Ravi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Digit. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.4103\/ortho.IJOrtho_312_16","article-title":"Error analysis: How precise is fused deposition modeling in fabrication of bone models in comparison to the parent bones?","volume":"52","author":"Reddy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian J. Orthop."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1108\/13552541011011695","article-title":"Error analysis of FDM fabricated medical replicas","volume":"16","author":"Masood","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijom.2019.03.962","article-title":"Can an entry-level 3D printer create high-quality anatomical models? Accuracy assessment of mandibular models printed by a desktop 3D printer and a professional device","volume":"49","author":"Hatz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2021.103741","article-title":"Accuracy of desktop versus professional 3D printers for maxillofacial model production. A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"112","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2010.10.007","article-title":"Use of rapid prototyping and three-dimensional reconstruction modeling in the management of complex fractures","volume":"80","author":"Bagaria","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Shujaat, S., Shaheen, E., Ferraris, E., and Jacobs, R. (2023). Trueness of cone-beam computed tomography-derived skull models fabricated by different technology-based three-dimensional printers. BMC Oral Health, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12903-023-03104-w"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1007\/s00256-010-0911-7","article-title":"Finger fractures imaging: Accuracy of cone-beam computed tomography and multislice computed tomography","volume":"39","author":"Faccioli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Skelet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcms.2014.07.002","article-title":"Accuracy of three-dimensional, paper-based models generated using a low-cost, three-dimensional printer","volume":"42","author":"Olszewski","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cranio-Maxillofac. Surg."}],"container-title":["Journal of Imaging"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/11\/2\/39\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:39:03Z","timestamp":1759919943000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/11\/2\/39"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["jimaging11020039"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jimaging11020039","relation":{},"ISSN":["2313-433X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2313-433X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]]}}}