{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T04:27:22Z","timestamp":1772252842612,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,9]],"date-time":"2019-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1546992000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Imaging"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Acutely ill patients presenting with conditions such as sepsis, trauma, and congestive heart failure require judicious resuscitation in order to achieve and maintain optimal circulating blood volume. Increasingly, emergency and critical care physicians are using portable ultrasound to approximate the temporal changes of the anterior\u2013posterior (AP)-diameter of the inferior vena cava (IVC) in order to guide fluid administration or removal. This paper proposes semi-automatic active ellipse and rectangle algorithms capable of improved and quantified measurement of the AP-diameter. The proposed algorithms are compared to manual measurement and a previously published active circle model. Results demonstrate that the rectangle model outperforms both active circle and ellipse irrespective of IVC shape and closely approximates tedious expert assessment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging5010012","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,10]],"date-time":"2019-01-10T03:22:31Z","timestamp":1547090551000},"page":"12","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Semi-Automatic Algorithms for Estimation and Tracking of AP-Diameter of the IVC in Ultrasound Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6909-0102","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ebrahim","family":"Karami","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Memorial University, St. John\u2019s, NL A1B 3X5, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8464-8650","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed S.","family":"Shehata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Memorial University, St. John\u2019s, NL A1B 3X5, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6007-2389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University, St. John\u2019s, NL A1B 3V6, Canada"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjsurg.2003.12.001","article-title":"The role of central venous pressure and type of vascular control in blood loss during major liver resections","volume":"187","author":"Smyrniotis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa010307","article-title":"Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock","volume":"345","author":"Rivers","year":"2001","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ikhsan, M., Tan, K.K., Putra, A.S., Chew, T.H.S., and Kong, C.F. (2017, January 11\u201315). Automatic identification of blood vessel cross-section for central venous catheter placement using a cascading classifier. Proceedings of the 2017 39th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Jeju Island, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2017.8037117"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025004","DOI":"10.1088\/2057-1976\/2\/2\/025004","article-title":"Non-invasive central venous pressure estimation by ultrasound-guided internal jugular vein cross-sectional area measurement","volume":"2","author":"Ogum","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed. Phys. Eng. Express"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ccx.0000224870.24324.cc","article-title":"Echocardiographic measurement of fluid responsiveness","volume":"12","author":"Charron","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.07-1496","article-title":"Fluid therapy in resuscitated sepsis: Less is more","volume":"133","author":"Durairaj","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chest J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1740","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-004-2259-8","article-title":"Respiratory changes in inferior vena cava diameter are helpful in predicting fluid responsiveness in ventilated septic patients","volume":"30","author":"Barbier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2013.10.003","article-title":"Multiscale geodesic active contours for ultrasound image segmentation using speckle reducing anisotropic diffusion","volume":"54","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.7763\/IJCTE.2009.V1.2","article-title":"Speckle noise reduction in ultrasound images by wavelet thresholding based on weighted variance","volume":"1","author":"Sudha","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Theory Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1109\/T-SU.1983.31404","article-title":"Statistics of speckle in ultrasound B-scans","volume":"30","author":"Wagner","year":"1983","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Sonics Ultrason."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2011.2106498","article-title":"Rayleigh mixture model for plaque characterization in intravascular ultrasound","volume":"58","author":"Seabra","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2012.2190617","article-title":"Segmentation of skin lesions in 2-D and 3-D ultrasound images using a spatially coherent generalized Rayleigh mixture model","volume":"31","author":"Pereyra","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1177\/016173468801000201","article-title":"Deviations from Rayleigh statistics in ultrasonic speckle","volume":"10","author":"Tuthill","year":"1988","journal-title":"Ultrason. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Karami, E., Shehata, M.S., and Smith, A. (May, January 30). Tracking of the Internal Jugular Vein in Ultrasound Images Using Optical Flow. Proceedings of the 30th Annual IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE), Windsor, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Karami, E., Shehata, M., and Smith, A. (2015, January 5\u20136). Ultrasound Image Segmentation Techniques for Tracking and Measurement of the Internal Jugular Vein. Proceedings of the 24th Annual Newfoundland Electrical and Computer Engineering Conference (NECEC), St. John\u2019s, NL, Canada."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karami, E., Shehata, M., McGuire, P., and Smith, A. (2016, January 24\u201327). A Semi-automated Technique for Internal Jugular Vein Segmentation in Ultrasound Images Using Active Contours. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE-EMBS International Conference on Biomedical and Health Informatics (BHI), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BHI.2016.7455865"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2010.01.002","article-title":"Probability density difference-based active contour for ultrasound image segmentation","volume":"43","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.4236\/jbise.2011.42015","article-title":"Medical ultrasound image segmentation using genetic active contour","volume":"4","author":"Talebi","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1243\/09544119JEIM604","article-title":"Ultrasound image segmentation and tissue characterization","volume":"224","author":"Noble","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part H J. Eng. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2018.03.002","article-title":"Accurate vessel segmentation in ultrasound images using a local-phase-based snake","volume":"43","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Signal Process. Control"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Yim, P.J., and Foran, D.J. (2003, January 26\u201327). Volumetry of hepatic metastases in computed tomography using the watershed and active contour algorithms. Proceedings of the IEEE 16th IEEE Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems, New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2012.2190089","article-title":"An integrated region-, boundary-, shape-based active contour for multiple object overlap resolution in histological imagery","volume":"31","author":"Ali","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/s10396-013-0435-6","article-title":"Cardiac variation of inferior vena cava: New concept in the evaluation of intravascular blood volume","volume":"40","author":"Nakamura","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Med. Ultrason."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Baust, M. (2012). Polar Active Contours for Medical Applications. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen]."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karami, E., Shehata, M., and Smith, A. (2017, January 14\u201316). Segmentation and Tracking of Inferior Vena Cava in Ultrasound Images Using a Novel Polar Active Contour Algorithm. Proceedings of the 5th IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing (GlobalSIP2017), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/GlobalSIP.2017.8309059"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2018.05.001","article-title":"Estimation and Tracking of AP-diameter of the Inferior Vena Cava in Ultrasound Images Using a Novel Active Circle Algorithm","volume":"98","author":"Karami","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karami, E., Shehata, M.S., and Smith, A. (2018). Adaptive Polar Active Contour for Segmentation and Tracking in Ultrasound Videos. IEEE Trans. Circ. Syst. Video Technol.","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2018.2818072"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/2036-7902-4-18","article-title":"Inferior vena cava displacement during respirophasic ultrasound imaging","volume":"4","author":"Blehar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crit. Ultrasound J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2007.899180","article-title":"Real-time vessel segmentation and tracking for ultrasound imaging applications","volume":"26","author":"Guerrero","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"}],"container-title":["Journal of Imaging"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/5\/1\/12\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:24:40Z","timestamp":1760185480000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/5\/1\/12"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,9]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1]]}},"alternative-id":["jimaging5010012"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jimaging5010012","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints201810.0704.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2313-433X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2313-433X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,9]]}}}