{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T10:37:07Z","timestamp":1775644627225,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,24]],"date-time":"2020-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1598227200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Imaging"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We present a numerical illumination model to calculate direct as well as diffuse or Hapke scattered radiation scenarios on arbitrary planetary surfaces. This includes small body surfaces such as main belt asteroids as well as e.g., the lunar surface. The model is based on the ray tracing method. This method is not restricted to spherical or ellipsoidal shapes but digital terrain data of arbitrary spatial resolution can be fed into the model. Solar radiation is the source of direct radiation, wavelength-dependent effects (e.g. albedo) can be accounted for. Mutual illumination of individual bodies in implemented (e.g. in binary or multiple systems) as well as self-illumination (e.g. crater floors by crater walls) by diffuse or Hapke radiation. The model is validated by statistical methods. A \u03c72 test is utilized to compare simulated images with DAWN images acquired during the survey phase at small body 4 Vesta and to successfully prove its validity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging6090084","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,24]],"date-time":"2020-08-24T10:37:32Z","timestamp":1598265452000},"page":"84","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["An Efficient and Lightweight Illumination Model for Planetary Bodies Including Direct and Diffuse Radiation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Marco","family":"Scharringhausen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Space Systems, German Aerospace Center, 28359 Bremen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3921-2524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lars","family":"Witte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Space Systems, German Aerospace Center, 28359 Bremen, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"ESA (2015). Asteroid Impact Mission: Didymos Reference Model, ESA. Technical Report 2.1."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Tompkins, P., Stentz, A., and Wettergreen, D. (2004, January 6\u201313). Global path planning for mars rover exploration. Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MT, USA."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Graciano, E., and Chester, J. (2011, January 12\u201314). Autonomous rover path planning and reconfiguration. Proceedings of the 11th Symposium on Advanced Space Technologies in Robotics and Automation (ASTRA), Noordwijk, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Gaskell, R.W. (2008). Gaskell Eros Shape Model v1.0. near-a-msi-5-erosshape-v1.0."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Parkes, S.M., Martin, I., Dunstan, I., Matthews, D., and Silva, V. (2003, January 2\u20136). Lidar-based GNC for planetary landing: Simulation with pangu. Proceedings of the DASIA 2003 (ESA SP-532), Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Parkes, S.M., Martin, I., and Milne, I. (1999, January 17\u201320). Lunar surface simulation modelling for vision guided lunar landers. Proceedings of the DASIA\u201999 Conference, Lisbon, Portuga."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Martin, I., Dunstan, M., Parkes, S., and Gestido, M.S. (2018, January 1\u20135). Testing Vision-based Guidance and Navigation Systems for Entry Descent and Landing Operations. Proceedings of the 69th International Astronautical Congress, Bremen, Germany."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Dunstan, M., Martin, I., Parkes, S., and Gestido, M.S. (2018, January 29\u201331). PANGU v4: A software tool for testing vision-based guidance and navigation systems for in-orbit, entry descent and landing and surface mobility operations. Proceedings of the Data Systems in Aerospace Conference, DASIA 2018, Oxford, UK."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Martin, I., Dunstan, M., and Parkes, S. (June, January 29). Simulating planetary approach and landing to test and verify autonomous navigation and guidance systems. Proceedings of the 10th International ESA Conference on Guidance, Navigation and Control Systems, Salzburg, Austria."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Martin, I., Parkes, S., Dunstan, M., Rowell, N., Salehi, S., and Gherardi, D. (2014, January 2\u20136). Validation Of Mission Critical Vision-Based Navigation Systems for Planetary Landers, Rovers In addition, In-Orbit Rendezvous. Proceedings of the 9th International ESA Conference on Guidance, Navigation & Control Systems, Oporto, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2010.10.030","article-title":"Illumination conditions of the lunar polar regions using LOLA topography","volume":"211","author":"Mazarico","year":"2011","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2012.03.007","article-title":"Analysis of landing site attributes for future missions targeting the rim of the lunar South Pole Aitken basin","volume":"80","author":"Koebel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4040934","article-title":"Conceptual Model of Surface Reflectance Estimation for Satellite Remote Sensing Images Using in situ Reference Data","volume":"4","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Brochard, R., Lebreton, J., Robin, C., Kanani, K., Jonniaux, G., Masson, A., Despre, N., and Berjaoui, A. (2018). Scientific image rendering for space scenes with the SurRender software. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2013.11.011","article-title":"Spectral diversity and photometric behavior of main-belt and near-Earth vestoids and (4) Vesta: A study in preparation for the Dawn encounter","volume":"235","author":"Hicks","year":"2014","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Gaskell, R., Saito, J., Ishiguro, M., Kubota, T., Hashimoto, T., Hirata, M., Abe, S., Barnouin-Jha, O., and Scheeres, D. (2008). Gaskell Itokawa Shape Model v1.0. hay-a-amica-5-itokawashape-v1.0."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Gaskell, R.W. (2011). Gaskell Phobos Shape Model v1.0. vo1-sa-visa\/visb-5-phobosshape-v1.0."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2019, May 10). SPICE Kernels DAWN, Available online: https:\/\/naif.jpl.nasa.gov\/pub\/naif\/pds\/data\/dawn-m_a-spice-6-v1.0\/dawnsp_1000\/data\/."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1145\/964965.808601","article-title":"Modeling the interaction of light between diffuse surfaces","volume":"18","author":"Goral","year":"1984","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1145\/357290.357293","article-title":"A reflectance model for computer graphics","volume":"1","author":"Cook","year":"1982","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whitted, T. (1979, January 8\u201310). An improved illumination model for shaded display. Proceedings of the 6th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/800249.807419"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kajiya, J.T. (1986, January 18\u201322). The rendering equation. Proceedings of the 13th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques, Dallas, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/15922.15902"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3039","DOI":"10.1029\/JB086iB04p03039","article-title":"Bidirectional reflectance spectroscopy","volume":"86","author":"Hapke","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-011-9745-4","article-title":"The Dawn framing camera","volume":"163","author":"Sierks","year":"2011","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2013.08.011","article-title":"Global photometric properties of asteroid (4) Vesta observed with dawn framing camera","volume":"226","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2013.09.005","article-title":"The Vesta gravity field, spin pole and rotation period, landmark positions, and ephemeris from the dawn tracking and optical data","volume":"240","author":"Konopliv","year":"2013","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Navigation and Ancillary Information Facility (NAIF) (2017). Spice\u2014An Observation Geometry System for Space Science Missions, Technical report."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2076","DOI":"10.1111\/maps.12091","article-title":"Dawn completes its mission at 4 Vesta","volume":"240","author":"Russell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meteorit. Planet. Sci."}],"container-title":["Journal of Imaging"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/6\/9\/84\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:05:44Z","timestamp":1760177144000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/6\/9\/84"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,24]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jimaging6090084"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jimaging6090084","relation":{},"ISSN":["2313-433X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2313-433X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,24]]}}}