{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T04:40:45Z","timestamp":1771476045675,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,17]],"date-time":"2021-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"International Fact-Checking Network","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}]},{"name":"Paris Region PhD","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Imaging"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A complex processing chain is applied from the moment a raw image is acquired until the final image is obtained. This process transforms the originally Poisson-distributed noise into a complex noise model. Noise inconsistency analysis is a rich source for forgery detection, as forged regions have likely undergone a different processing pipeline or out-camera processing. We propose a multi-scale approach, which is shown to be suitable for analyzing the highly correlated noise present in JPEG-compressed images. We estimate a noise curve for each image block, in each color channel and at each scale. We then compare each noise curve to its corresponding noise curve obtained from the whole image by counting the percentage of bins of the local noise curve that are below the global one. This procedure yields crucial detection cues since many forgeries create a local noise deficit. Our method is shown to be competitive with the state of the art. It outperforms all other methods when evaluated using the MCC score, or on forged regions large enough and for colorization attacks, regardless of the evaluation metric.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging7070119","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,18]],"date-time":"2021-07-18T21:16:48Z","timestamp":1626643008000},"page":"119","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Forgery Detection in Digital Images by Multi-Scale Noise Estimation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Marina","family":"Gardella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre Borelli, ENS Paris-Saclay, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, CNRS, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France"}]},{"given":"Pablo","family":"Mus\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IIE, Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad de la Rep\u00fablica, Montevideo 11300, Uruguay"}]},{"given":"Jean-Michel","family":"Morel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre Borelli, ENS Paris-Saclay, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, CNRS, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2636-0656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Colom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre Borelli, ENS Paris-Saclay, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, CNRS, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"6","article-title":"A Survey of Digital Watermarking Techniques","volume":"1","author":"Singh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. 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