{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T17:17:08Z","timestamp":1778519828971,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]],"date-time":"2022-03-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647216000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Imaging"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article compares measurements of particle shape parameters from three-dimensional (3D) X-ray micro-computed tomography (\u03bcCT) and two-dimensional (2D) dynamic image analysis (DIA) from the optical microscopy of a coastal bioclastic calcareous sand from Western Australia. This biogenic sand from a high energy environment consists largely of the shells and tests of marine organisms and their clasts. A significant difference was observed between the two imaging techniques for measurements of aspect ratio, convexity, and sphericity. Measured values of aspect ratio, sphericity, and convexity are larger in 2D than in 3D. Correlation analysis indicates that sphericity is correlated with convexity in both 2D and 3D. These results are attributed to inherent limitations of DIA when applied to platy sand grains and to the shape being, in part, dependent on the biology of the grain rather than a purely random clastic process, like typical siliceous sands. The statistical data has also been fitted to Johnson Bounded Distribution for the ease of future use. Overall, this research demonstrates the need for high-quality 3D microscopy when conducting a micromechanical analysis of biogenic calcareous sands.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jimaging8030072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,15]],"date-time":"2022-03-15T02:56:20Z","timestamp":1647312980000},"page":"72","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Comparison of 2D Optical Imaging and 3D Microtomography Shape Measurements of a Coastal Bioclastic Calcareous Sand"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9101-5325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ryan D.","family":"Beemer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9076-5853","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linzhu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Urban Engineering, New York University, New York, NY 10012, USA"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Leonti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA"}]},{"given":"Jeremy","family":"Shaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation & Analysis, University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7654-6005","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joana","family":"Fonseca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, City, University of London, London EC1V 0HB, UK"}]},{"given":"Iren","family":"Valova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8245-1451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magued","family":"Iskander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Urban Engineering, New York University, New York, NY 10012, USA"}]},{"given":"Cynthia H.","family":"Pilskaln","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School for Marine Science and Technology, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001569","article-title":"Effect of particle shape on the mechanical properties of natural sands","volume":"142","author":"Altuhafi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. ASCE"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.2010.60.6.413","article-title":"The influence of particle characteristics on the behaviour of coarse grained soils","volume":"60","author":"Cavarretta","year":"2010","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:5(591)","article-title":"Particle Shape Effects on Packing Density, Stiffness, and Strength: Natural and Crushed Sands","volume":"132","author":"Cho","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1680\/jgele.18.00199","article-title":"Grain morphology and strength dilatancy of sands","volume":"9","author":"Guida","year":"2019","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1520\/GTJ20160165","article-title":"Soil Particle Size and Shape Distributions by Stereophotography and Image Analysis","volume":"40","author":"Zheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geotech. Test. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000855","article-title":"Analysis of an Image-Based Method to Quantify the Size and Shape of Sand Particles","volume":"139","author":"Altuhafi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1520\/GTJ20190137","article-title":"Evaluation of Dynamic Image Analysis for Characterizing Granular Soils","volume":"43","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geotech. Test. J."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"04020020","article-title":"Quantifying the Morphology of Calcareous Sands by Dynamic Image Analysis","volume":"20","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. G\u00e9om\u00e9ch."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.2003.53.3.317","article-title":"PSD measurement using the single particle optical sizing (SPOS) method","volume":"53","author":"White","year":"2003","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2013.04.003","article-title":"High-resolution X-ray computed tomography in geosciences: A review of the current technology and applications","volume":"123","author":"Cnudde","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sandf.2012.07.011","article-title":"Non-invasive characterization of particle morphology of natural sands","volume":"52","author":"Fonseca","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soils Found."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.2010.60.5.315","article-title":"Discrete and continuum analysis of localised deformation in sand using X-ray \u03bcCT and volumetric digital image correlation","volume":"60","author":"Hall","year":"2010","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beemer, R.D., Bandini-Maeder, A.N., Shaw, J., Lebrec, U., and Cassidy, M.J. (2018, January 17\u201322). The granular structure of two marine carbonate sediments. Proceedings of the 37th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore & Arctic Engineering, Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1115\/OMAE2018-77087"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1680\/jgeot.16.P.278","article-title":"Quantification of the morphology of shelly carbonate sands using 3D images","volume":"68","author":"Kong","year":"2018","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020171","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002431","article-title":"Granulometry of Two Marine Calcareous Sands","volume":"147","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beemer, R.D., Bandini-Maeder, A.N., Shaw, J., and Cassidy, M.J. (2019). Volumetric Particle Size Distribution and Variable Granular Density Soils. Geotech. Test. J., 43.","DOI":"10.1520\/GTJ20180286"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beemer, R.D., Sadekov, A., Lebrec, U., Shaw, J., Bandini-Maeder, A., and Cassidy, M.J. (2019). Impact of Biology on Particle Crushing in Offshore Calcareous Sediments. Geo-Congress 2019: Geotechnical Materials, Modeling, and Testing, ASCE.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780784482124.065"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Demars, K., and Chaney, R. (2009). Unique Engineering Properties and Compression Behavior of Deep-Sea Calcareous Sediments. Geotechnical Properties, Behavior, and Performance of Calcareous Soils, ASTM. ASTM STP 777."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Jewell, R.J., and Andrews, D.C. (1988). Some fundamental properties of carbonate sands. Engineering for Calcareous Sediments, Balkema."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Jewell, R.J., and Andrews, D.C. (1988). Mechanical properties of carbonate soils. Engineering for Calcareous Sediments, Balkema."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"11","article-title":"Development of geotechnical experience on the North West Shelf","volume":"32","author":"Khorshid","year":"1990","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Eng. Australia."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., Sun, Q., and Iskander, M. (2022). Efficacy of 3D dynamic image analysis for characterising the morphology of natural sands. G\u00e9otechnique, 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1680\/jgeot.21.00128"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106052","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2021.106052","article-title":"Comparison of 2D and 3D dynamic image analysis for characterization of natural sands","volume":"290","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2019.04.006","article-title":"Sphericity measures of sand grains","volume":"254","author":"Rorato","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Sharma, S.S. (2004). Characterisation of cyclic behaviour of calcite cemented calcareous soils. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Western Australia]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leonti, A., Fonseca, J., Valova, I., Beemer, R., Cannistraro, D., Pilskaln, C., Deflorio, D., and Kelly, G. (2020, January 13\u201315). Optimized 3D Segmentation Algorithm for Shelly Sand Images. In proceeding of the 6th World Congress on Electrical Engineering and Computer Systems and Science (EECSS'20), Virtual Conference.","DOI":"10.11159\/cist20.107"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1979.4310076","article-title":"A Threshold selection method from gray-level histogram","volume":"9","author":"Otsu","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"ISO 9276\u20136 (2008). Representation of Results of Particle Size Analysis\u2014Part 6: Descriptive and Quantitative Representation of Particle Shape and Morphology, ISO."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"ASTM (2016). Standard Practice for Characterization of Particles, ASTM. ASTM F1877."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krumbein, W.C. (1941). Measurement and Geological Significance of Shape and Roundness of Sedimentary Particles. J. Sediment. Res., 11.","DOI":"10.1306\/D42690F3-2B26-11D7-8648000102C1865D"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Zingg, T. (1935). Beitrag zur Schotteranalyse. [Ph.D. Thesis, ETH Zurich]. (In German)."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1086\/624298","article-title":"Volume, Shape, and Roundness of Quartz Particles","volume":"43","author":"Wadell","year":"1935","journal-title":"J. Geol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"ASTM (2017). ASTM D6913 Standard Test Methods for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Soils Using Sieve Analysis, ASTM International."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/36.1-2.149","article-title":"Systems of Frequency Curves Generated by Methods of Translation","volume":"36","author":"Johnson","year":"1949","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Ching, J., and Phoon, K.-K. (2015). Constructing multivariate distributions for soil parameters. Risk and Reliability in Geotechnical Engineering, Taylor & Francis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-019-0686-2","article-title":"SciPy 1.0: Fundamental Algorithms for Scientific Computing in Python","volume":"17","author":"Virtanen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"350","article-title":"Modular Equations and Approximations to \u03c0","volume":"45","author":"Ramanujan","year":"1914","journal-title":"Q. J. Math."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9410(1990)116:8(1288)","article-title":"Discussion of \u2018Classification of Marine Sediments","volume":"116","author":"Dutt","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.1977.27.1.93","article-title":"A proposed scheme for the classification and nomemclature for use in the engineering description on Middle Eastern sedimentary rocks","volume":"27","author":"Clark","year":"1977","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9410(1987)113:5(490)","article-title":"Pile Capacity in Calcareous Sands: State if the Art","volume":"113","author":"Murff","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Watson, P., Bransby, F., Delimi, Z.L., Erbrich, C., Finnie, I., Krisdani, H., Meecham, C., Randolph, M., Rattley, M., and Silva, M. (2019, January 17\u201320). Foundation Design in Offshore Carbonate Sediments\u2013Building on Knowledge to Address Future Challenges. Proceedings of the from Research to Applied Geotechnics: Invited Lectures of the XVI Pan-American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (XVI PCSMGE), Cancun, Mexico."}],"container-title":["Journal of Imaging"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/8\/3\/72\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:36:27Z","timestamp":1760135787000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-433X\/8\/3\/72"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jimaging8030072"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jimaging8030072","relation":{},"ISSN":["2313-433X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2313-433X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]]}}}