{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T10:42:42Z","timestamp":1777286562957,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]],"date-time":"2025-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746057600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"R&amp;D Project","award":["PID2023-147965NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-147965NB-I00"]}]},{"name":"R&amp;D Project","award":["MICIU\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MICIU\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"]}]},{"name":"R&amp;D Project","award":["TEC-2024\/TEC-62"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TEC-2024\/TEC-62"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Government, Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities","award":["PID2023-147965NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-147965NB-I00"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Government, Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities","award":["MICIU\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MICIU\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Government, Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities","award":["TEC-2024\/TEC-62"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TEC-2024\/TEC-62"]}]},{"name":"iRoboCity2030-CM, Rob\u00f3tica inteligente para ciudades sostenibles","award":["PID2023-147965NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-147965NB-I00"]}]},{"name":"iRoboCity2030-CM, Rob\u00f3tica inteligente para ciudades sostenibles","award":["MICIU\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MICIU\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"]}]},{"name":"iRoboCity2030-CM, Rob\u00f3tica inteligente para ciudades sostenibles","award":["TEC-2024\/TEC-62"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TEC-2024\/TEC-62"]}]},{"name":"Programas de Actividades I+D en tecnolog\u00edas de la Comunidad de Madrid","award":["PID2023-147965NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-147965NB-I00"]}]},{"name":"Programas de Actividades I+D en tecnolog\u00edas de la Comunidad de Madrid","award":["MICIU\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MICIU\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033"]}]},{"name":"Programas de Actividades I+D en tecnolog\u00edas de la Comunidad de Madrid","award":["TEC-2024\/TEC-62"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TEC-2024\/TEC-62"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JSAN"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper explores the design, control, construction, and leading manufacturers of upper limb rehabilitation robots through a thorough literature review. Utilizing databases such as Scopus, IEEE Xplore, Science Direct, Springer Link, and the Clinical Trials database, the research adhered to a rigorous screening process in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. This included analyzing abstracts and conducting comprehensive reviews of full articles when necessary. A total of fourteen relevant papers were systematically selected for in-depth analysis. The study offers a detailed classification of robotic technologies along with their Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs), discusses the primary challenges hindering their adoption, and proposes strategic research directions to address these issues. In conclusion, while upper limb robotic devices exhibit significant potential, persistent technological and design challenges must be addressed, underscoring the need for ongoing research and multidisciplinary collaboration to facilitate broader and more effective adoption.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan14030048","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,2]],"date-time":"2025-05-02T07:44:58Z","timestamp":1746171898000},"page":"48","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Exploring Robotic Technologies for Upper Limb Rehabilitation: Current Status and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6000-0625","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabian Horacio","family":"Diaz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Ingenier\u00eda Mec\u00e1nica, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga 680002, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1014-2817","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Borr\u00e1s Pinilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Ingenier\u00eda Mec\u00e1nica, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga 680002, Colombia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1067-0564","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cecilia E.","family":"Garc\u00eda Cena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela T\u00e9cnica Superior de Ingenier\u00eda y Dise\u00f1o Industrial, ETSIDI-UPM, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, C\/Ronda de Valencia 3, 28012 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Centre for Automation and Robotics, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas UPM-CSIC, C\/Ronda de Valencia 3, 28012 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.11591\/ijai.v11.i2.pp613-623","article-title":"A review of upper limb robot-assisted therapy techniques and virtual reality applications","volume":"11","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2022","journal-title":"IAES Int. J. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-018-0786-8","article-title":"Comparison of Human-Robot Interaction Torque Estimation Methods in a Wrist Rehabilitation Exoskeleton","volume":"94","author":"Saadatzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst. Theory Appl."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hatem, S.M., Saussez, G., Faille, M.D., Prist, V., Zhang, X., Dispa, D., and Bleyenheuft, Y. (2016). Rehabilitation of motor function after stroke: A multiple systematic review focused on techniques to stimulate upper extremity recovery. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00442"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10050","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2024.3469811","article-title":"Multimodal Strain Sensing System for Shape Recognition of Tensegrity Structures by Combining Traditional Regression and Deep Learning Approaches","volume":"9","author":"Mao","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000177","DOI":"10.4172\/2168-9695.1000177","article-title":"A Brief Review on Robotic Exoskeletons for Upper Extremity Rehabilitation to Find the Gap between Research Prototype and Commercial Type","volume":"6","author":"Islam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2015.2503726","article-title":"Minimal Assist-as-Needed Controller for Upper Limb Robotic Rehabilitation","volume":"32","author":"Pehlivan","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"841","article-title":"A survey on robotic devices for upper limb rehabilitation","volume":"74","author":"Maciejasz","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gull, M.A., Bai, S., and Bak, T. (2020). A review on design of upper limb exoskeletons. Robotics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics9010016"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, G., and Xu, L. (2021, January 3\u20135). Compliance Control of a Lower Limb Rehabilitation Robot in Mirror Therapy. Proceedings of the 2021 7th International Conference on Mechatronics and Robotics Engineering (ICMRE 2021), Budapest, Hungary.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMRE51691.2021.9384851"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colombo, R., and Sanguineti, V. (2018). Chapter 5\u2014Assistive controllers and modalities for robot-aided neurorehabilitation. Rehabilitation Robotics, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-811995-2.00005-9"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-021-01353-x","article-title":"A review: A Comprehensive Review of Soft and Rigid Wearable Rehabilitation and Assistive Devices with a Focus on the Shoulder Joint","volume":"102","author":"Vatan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst. Theory Appl."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cardona, M., Destarac, M., and Cena, C.G. (2020). Robotics for Rehabilitation: A State of the Art. Exoskeleton Robots for Rehabilitation and Healthcare Devices, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-4732-4_1"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178991","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3026641","article-title":"State-of-the-art assistive powered upper limb exoskeletons for elderly","volume":"8","author":"Kapsalyamov","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.2174\/2213385204666160303220102","article-title":"A review of rehabilitation devices to promote upper limb function following stroke","volume":"4","author":"Brackenridge","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gasperina, S.D., Roveda, L., Pedrocchi, A., Braghin, F., and Gandolla, M. (2021). Review on Patient-Cooperative Control Strategies for Upper-Limb Rehabilitation Exoskeletons. Front. Robot. AI, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2021.745018"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ofner, P., Schwarz, A., Pereira, J., and M\u00fcller-Putz, G.R. (2017). Upper limb movements can be decoded from the time-domain of low-frequency EEG. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0182578"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freeman, C. (2016). Control System Design for Electrical Stimulation in Upper Limb Rehabilitation, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-25706-8"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2016.2552201","article-title":"Upper-limb robotic exoskeletons for neurorehabilitation: A review on control strategies","volume":"9","author":"Proietti","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"De Marzi, L., and Peixoto, N. (2025, January 13). EEG-EMG-Based Interface for Upper Limb Exoskeleton\u2014A Review. Online Resource. Available online: https:\/\/mars.gmu.edu\/server\/api\/core\/bitstreams\/2a2f28cf-552d-40b1-8b57-91a5b802ee60\/content."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, J., Choudhury, R., Hosseini, S.M., Simpson, R., and Park, J.-H. (2022). Myoelectric Control Systems for Upper Limb Wearable Robotic Exoskeletons and Exosuits\u2014A Systematic Review. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218134"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"010804","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4039145","article-title":"A review of intent detection, arbitration, and communication aspects of shared control for physical human\u2013robot interaction","volume":"70","author":"Losey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2019.2935182","article-title":"EMG-Based Real-Time Linear-Nonlinear Cascade Regression Decoding of Shoulder, Elbow, and Wrist Movements in Able-Bodied Persons and Stroke Survivors","volume":"67","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1177\/15459683231166939","article-title":"New Artificial Intelligence-Integrated Electromyography-Driven Robot Hand for Upper Extremity Rehabilitation of Patients With Stroke: A Randomized, Controlled Trial","volume":"37","author":"Murakami","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1730","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2022.3224423","article-title":"CURER: A Lightweight Cable-Driven Compliant Upper Limb Rehabilitation Exoskeleton Robot","volume":"28","author":"Qian","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1109\/TMRB.2023.3269863","article-title":"A Bamboo-Inspired Exoskeleton (BiEXO) Based on Carbon Fiber for Shoulder and Elbow Joints","volume":"5","author":"Zahedi","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Robot. Bionics"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verdel, D., Sahm, G., Bruneau, O., Berret, B., and Vignais, N. (2023). A Trade-Off between Complexity and Interaction Quality for Upper Limb Exoskeleton Interfaces. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23084122"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s10033-023-00883-9","article-title":"Design and Analysis of a Novel Shoulder Exoskeleton Based on a Parallel Mechanism","volume":"36","author":"Niu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32352","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2901814","article-title":"Review of automated systems for upper limbs functional assessment in neurorehabilitation","volume":"7","author":"Baeza","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2017.2700634","article-title":"Review on Design and Control Aspects of Robotic Shoulder Rehabilitation Orthoses","volume":"47","author":"Niyetkaliyev","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Hum.-Mach. Syst."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qassim, H.M., and Wan Hasan, W.Z. (2020). A review on upper limb rehabilitation robots. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10196976"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-022-00991-y","article-title":"A randomized clinical control study on the efficacy of three-dimensional upper limb robotic exoskeleton training in chronic stroke","volume":"19","author":"Frisoli","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, M.H., Ouimet, T.K., Saad, M., Kenn\u00e9, J.P., and Archambault, P.S. (2010, January 7\u201310). Development and control of a wearable robot for rehabilitation of elbow and shoulder joint movements. Proceedings of the IECON 2010\u201436th Annual Conference on IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Glendale, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IECON.2010.5675459"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fitle, K.D., Pehlivan, A.U., and O\u2019Malley, M.K. (2015, January 26\u201330). A robotic exoskeleton for rehabilitation and assessment of the upper limb following incomplete spinal cord injury. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2015.7139888"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lessard, S., Pansodtee, P., Robbins, A., Baltaxe-Admony, L.B., Trombadore, J.M., Teodorescu, M., Agogino, A., and Kurniawan, S. (2017, January 17\u201320). CRUX: A compliant robotic upper-extremity exosuit for lightweight, portable, multi-joint muscular augmentation. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (ICORR), London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2017.8009482"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2017.2676765","article-title":"Robust control of a cable-driven soft exoskeleton joint for intrinsic human-robot interaction","volume":"25","author":"Jarrett","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barria, P., Riquelme, M., Reppich, H., Cisnal, A., Fraile, J.C., P\u00e9rez-Turiel, J., Sierra, D., Aguilar, R., Andrade, A., and Nu\u00f1ez-Espinosa, C. (2023). Hand rehabilitation based on the RobHand exoskeleton in stroke patients: A case series study. Front. Robot. AI, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2023.1146018"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oguntosin, V.W., Mori, Y., Kim, H., Nasuto, S.J., Kawamura, S., and Hayashi, Y. (2017). Design and Validation of exoskeleton actuated by soft modules toward neurorehabilitation-vision-based control for precise reaching motion of upper limb. Front. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00352"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01887-0_53","article-title":"Design of a hand exoskeleton for use with upper limb exoskeletons","volume":"22","author":"Ferguson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosyst. Biorobot."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahdavian, M., Toudeshki, A.G., and Yousefi-Koma, A. (2015, January 7\u20139). Design and Fabrication of a 3DoF Upper Limb Exoskeleton. Proceedings of the 2015 3rd RSI International Conference on Robotics and Mechatronics (ICROM), Tehran, Iran.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRoM.2015.7367808"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2007.903917","article-title":"Design and Validation of a Rehabilitation Robotic Exoskeleton for Tremor Assessment and Suppression","volume":"15","author":"Rocon","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gopura, R., Kiguchi, K., and Li, Y. (2009, January 11\u201315). SUEFUL-7: A 7DOF upper-limb exoskeleton robot with muscle-model-oriented EMG-based control. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2009.5353935"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364917706743","article-title":"An upper-body rehabilitation exoskeleton Harmony with an anatomical shoulder mechanism: Design, modeling, control, and performance evaluation","volume":"36","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Oliveira, A.C., Rose, C.G., Warburton, K., Ogden, E.M., Whitford, B., Lee, R.K., and Deshpande, A.D. (2019, January 24\u201328). Exploring the Capabilities of Harmony for Upper-Limb Stroke Therapy. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 16th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (ICORR), Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2019.8779558"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghonasgi, K., Oliveira, A.C.D., Shafer, A., Rose, C.G., and Deshpande, A.D. (2019, January 14\u201318). Estimating the Effect of Robotic Intervention on Elbow Joint Motion. Proceedings of the 2019 28th IEEE International Conference on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN), New Delhi, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/RO-MAN46459.2019.8956371"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2010.2052170","article-title":"Optimization of a parallel shoulder mechanism to achieve a high-force, low-mass, robotic-arm exoskeleton","volume":"26","author":"Klein","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garrec, P., Friconneau, J.P., M\u00e9asson, Y., and Perrot, Y. (2008, January 22\u201326). ABLE, an innovative transparent exoskeleton for the upper-limb. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Nice, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2008.4651012"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1007\/s12555-011-0135-1","article-title":"Control of an Exoskeleton Robot Arm with Sliding Mode Exponential Reaching Law","volume":"11","author":"Rahman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Control Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1017\/S0263574714000034","article-title":"Development of a whole arm wearable robotic exoskeleton for rehabilitation and to assist upper limb movements","volume":"33","author":"Rahman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Robotica"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebrahimi, A., Groninger, D., Singer, R., and Schneider, U. (2017, January 22\u201324). Control parameter optimization of the actively powered upper body exoskeleton using subjective feedbacks. Proceedings of the 2017 3rd International Conference on Control, Automation and Robotics (ICCAR), Nagoya, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCAR.2017.7942733"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2034","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2017.2717874","article-title":"Design of a Parallel Actuated Exoskeleton for Adaptive and Safe Robotic Shoulder Rehabilitation","volume":"22","author":"Hsieh","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1045389X1774272","article-title":"ASR glove: A wearable glove for hand assistance and rehabilitation using shape memory alloys","volume":"29","author":"Hadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sale, P., Stellin, G., Masiero, S., Becchi, F., and Sieklicki, W. (2018). FEX a Fingers Extending eXoskeleton for Rehabilitation and Regaining Mobility. Advances in Service and Industrial Robotics: Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Robotics in Alpe-Adria-Danube Region, RAAD 2017, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-61276-8_86"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.5772\/62404","article-title":"Design and Development of a Hand Exoskeleton Robot for Active and Passive Rehabilitation","volume":"13","author":"Tripicchio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"269","article-title":"A 4-DOF Upper Limb Exoskeleton for Stroke Rehabilitation: Kinematics Mechanics and Control","volume":"4","author":"Sutapun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Eng. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.5772\/58874","article-title":"Active Elbow Orthosis","volume":"11","author":"Ripel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1908","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.116.016304","article-title":"Contralesional Brain-Computer Interface Control of a Powered Exoskeleton for Motor Recovery in Chronic Stroke Survivors","volume":"48","author":"Bundy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-08072-7_59","article-title":"A novel robot-aided therapy for shoulder rehabilitation after stroke: Active-assisted control of the rehaarm robot using electromyographic signals","volume":"7","author":"Genna","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosyst. Biorobot."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Accogli, A., Grazi, L., Crea, S., Panarese, A., Carpaneto, J., Vitiello, N., and Micera, S. (2025, January 13). EMG-Based Detection of User\u2019s Intentions for Human-Machine Shared Control of an Assistive Upper-Limb Exoskeleton. Available online: https:\/\/api.semanticscholar.org\/CorpusID:114960887."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"3036468","article-title":"A Wearable Robotic Device Based on Twisted String Actuation for Rehabilitation and Assistive Applications","volume":"2017","author":"Hosseini","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Robot."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.3109\/17483107.2013.873491","article-title":"Effects of electromyography-driven robot-aided hand training with neuromuscular electrical stimulation on hand control performance after chronic stroke","volume":"10","author":"Rong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"341","article-title":"Design and development of 3d printed myoelectric robotic exoskeleton for hand rehabilitation","volume":"10","author":"Ben","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Smart Sens. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2008.04.002","article-title":"Quantitative evaluation of motor functional recovery process in chronic stroke patients during robot-assisted wrist training","volume":"19","author":"Hu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol. Off. J. Int. Soc. Electrophysiol. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lambelet, C., Lyu, M., Woolley, D., Gassert, R., and Wenderoth, N. (2017, January 17\u201320). The eWrist\u2014A wearable wrist exoskeleton with sEMG-based force control for stroke rehabilitation. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (ICORR), London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2017.8009334"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2020.0090","article-title":"An Exoneuromusculoskeleton for Self-Help Upper Limb Rehabilitation after Stroke","volume":"9","author":"Nam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Monta\u00f1o, J., Garcia Cena, C., Chamorro, L., Destarac, M., and Saltaren, R. (2017). Mechanical Design of a Robotic Exoskeleton for Upper Limb Rehabilitation. Advances in Automation and Robotics Research in Latin America: Proceedings of the 1st Latin American Congress on Automation and Robotics, Panama City, Panama 2017, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1638","DOI":"10.1109\/TLA.2018.8444160","article-title":"ORTE: Robot for upper limb rehabilitation. biomechanical analysis of human movements","volume":"16","author":"Destarac","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Lat. Am. Trans."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"011002","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4035087","article-title":"A novel shoulder exoskeleton robot using parallel actuation and a passive slip interface","volume":"9","author":"Hunt","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mech. Robot."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crea, S., Cempini, M., Mazzoleni, S., Carrozza, M.C., Posteraro, F., and Vitiello, N. (2017). Phase-II clinical validation of a powered exoskeleton for the treatment of elbow spasticity. Front. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00261"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157096","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/157096","article-title":"Optimal Design of a 3-DOF Cable-Driven Upper Arm Exoskeleton","volume":"6","author":"Shao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3777","DOI":"10.1177\/0954406215616415","article-title":"Development and analysis of a gravity-balanced exoskeleton for active rehabilitation training of upper limb","volume":"230","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-46669-9_79","article-title":"Wearable Elbow Exoskeleton Actuated with Shape Memory Alloy","volume":"15","author":"Copaci","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosyst. Biorobot."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2018.2854219","article-title":"A Soft Exosuit for Flexible Upper-Extremity Rehabilitation","volume":"26","author":"Lessard","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarac, M., Solazzi, M., Leonardis, D., Sotgiu, E., Bergamasco, M., and Frisoli, A. (2017). Design of an Underactuated Hand Exoskeleton with Joint Estimation. Advances in Italian Mechanism Science: Proceedings of the First International Conference of IFToMM Italy, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-48375-7_11"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, M.K., and Ordonez, R. (2016, January 19\u201322). Design and fabrication of an intention based upper-limb exo-skeleton. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Symposium on Intelligent Control (ISIC), Buenos Aires, Argentina.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISIC.2016.7579982"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2016.2618888","article-title":"Design of a 7-DOF Cable-Driven Arm Exoskeleton (CAREX-7) and a Controller for Dexterous Motion Training or Assistance","volume":"22","author":"Cui","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2012.2189496","article-title":"Design of a cable-driven arm exoskeleton (CAREX) for neural rehabilitation","volume":"28","author":"Mao","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1007\/s12555-014-0250-x","article-title":"Passivity based adaptive control for upper extremity assist exoskeleton","volume":"14","author":"Khan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Control Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosales, Y., L\u00f3pez, R., Diaz, I.R., Salazar, S., and Lozano, R. (2015, January 14\u201316). Design and modeling of an upper limb exoskeleton. Proceedings of the 2015 19th International Conference on System Theory, Control and Computing (ICSTCC), Cheile Gradistei, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSTCC.2015.7321304"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, C.H., Lien, W.M., Wang, W.W., Chen, S.H., Lo, C.H., Lin, S.Y., Fu, L.C., and Lai, J.S. (2014, January 14\u201318). NTUH-II robot arm with dynamic torque gain adjustment method for frozen shoulder rehabilitation. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2014.6943059"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2007.901934","article-title":"Upper-limb powered exoskeleton design","volume":"12","author":"Perry","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.5772\/60440","article-title":"6-REXOS: Upper Limb Exoskeleton Robot with Improved pHRI","volume":"12","author":"Gunasekara","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.20965\/jrm.2014.p0103","article-title":"Hand motion assist robot for rehabilitation therapy","volume":"26","author":"Kawasaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Robot. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mihelj, M., Podobnik, J., and Munih, M. (2008, January 19\u201322). HEnRiE-Haptic Environment for Reaching and Grasping Exercise. Proceedings of the 2008 2nd IEEE RAS & EMBS International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics, Scottsdale, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BIOROB.2008.4762810"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomi\u0107, T.J.D., Savi\u0107, A.M., Vidakovi\u0107, A.S., Rodi\u0107, S.Z., Isakovi\u0107, M.S., Rodr\u00edguez-de-Pablo, C., Keller, T., and Konstantinovi\u0107, L.M. (2017). ArmAssist robotic system versus matched conventional therapy for poststroke upper limb rehabilitation: A randomized clinical trial. Biomed Res. Int., 2017.","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/7659893"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"137","article-title":"Validation of a robot serious game assessment protocol for upper limb motor impairment in children with cerebral palsy","volume":"45","author":"Dehem","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroRehabilitation"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2309499018777887","DOI":"10.1177\/2309499018777887","article-title":"Robotic rehabilitation training with a newly developed upper limb single-joint Hybrid Assistive Limb (HAL-SJ) for elbow flexor reconstruction after brachial plexus injury: A report of two cases","volume":"26","author":"Kubota","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Surg."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1177\/1558944717692096","article-title":"Efficacy of Short-Term Robot-Assisted Rehabilitation in Patients With Hand Paralysis After Stroke: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"13","author":"Taveggia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hand"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1109\/86.662623","article-title":"Robot-Aided Neurorehabilitation","volume":"6","author":"Krebs","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"33","article-title":"Effects of proximal and distal robot-assisted upper limb rehabilitation on chronic stroke recovery","volume":"33","author":"Mazzoleni","year":"2013","journal-title":"NeuroRehabilitation"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adomavi\u010dien\u0117, A., Daunoravi\u010dien\u0117, K., Kubilius, R., Var\u017eaityt\u0117, L., and Raistenskis, J. (2019). Influence of New Technologies on Post-Stroke Rehabilitation: A Comparison of Armeo Spring to the Kinect System. Medicina, 55.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina55040098"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1080\/17483107.2019.1594403","article-title":"A narrative review: Current upper limb prosthetic options and design","volume":"15","author":"Trent","year":"2020","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Cardona, M., Solanki, K.S., and Garc\u00eda Cena, C.E. (2025, January 13). Springer Briefs In Applied Sciences And Technology: Exoskeleton Robots for Rehabilitation and Healthcare Devices. Available online: http:\/\/www.springer.com\/series\/8884."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Sui, D., Fan, J., Jin, H., Cai, X., Zhao, J., and Zhu, Y. (2017, January 3\u20137). Design of a wearable upper-limb exoskeleton for activities assistance of daily living. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM), Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartopanu, S., Poboroniuc, M., Florin, S., Irimia, D., and Livint, G. (2013, January 11\u201313). Design of a hybrid FES-mechanical intelligent haptic robotic glove. Proceedings of the 2013 17th International Conference on System Theory, Control and Computing (ICSTCC), Sinaia, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSTCC.2013.6689040"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"(2016). Medical Devices\u2014Quality Management Systems\u2014Requirements for Regulatory Purposes (Standard No. ISO 13485:2016)."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"(2012). Medical Electrical Equipment\u2014Part 1: General Requirements for Basic Safety and Essential Performance (Standard No. IEC 60601-1:2005+AMD1:2012)."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"(2014). Medical Electrical Equipment\u2014Part 1\u20132: General Requirements for Basic Safety and Essential Performance\u2014Collateral Standard: Electromagnetic Disturbances\u2014Requirements and Tests (Standard No. IEC 60601-1-2:2014)."}],"container-title":["Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2224-2708\/14\/3\/48\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:26:06Z","timestamp":1760030766000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2224-2708\/14\/3\/48"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]]},"references-count":97,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["jsan14030048"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jsan14030048","relation":{},"ISSN":["2224-2708"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2224-2708","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]]}}}