{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T22:53:53Z","timestamp":1773183233003,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,21]],"date-time":"2020-02-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1582243200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JSAN"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The adoption of the distributed generation paradigm is introducing several changes in the design and operation of modern distribution networks. Modern grid codes are becoming more and more complex, and the adoption of smart protection systems is becoming mandatory. However, the adoption of newer and smarter units is only half of the story. Proper communication networks must be provided as well, and the overall costs may become critical. In this work, the adoption of the Long-Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) technology is suggested as a viable approach to implement the coordination of Interface Protection Systems. A proper communication architecture based on the LoRaWAN Class B technology was proposed and evaluated in order to assess its feasibility for the considered application. A scalability analysis was carried out, by computing the number of devices that can be handled by a single LoRaWAN Gateway (GW) and the maximum expected time of response between a triggering event and the arrival of the related coordination command. The results of the study showed that up to 312 devices can be managed by a single GW, by assuring a maximum response time of 22.95 s. A faster maximum response time of 6.2 s is also possible by reducing the number of managed devices to 12.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan9010013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,21]],"date-time":"2020-02-21T08:59:47Z","timestamp":1582275587000},"page":"13","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Evaluation of the Use of Class B LoRaWAN for the Coordination of Distributed Interface Protection Systems in Smart Grids"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8093-7925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Pasetti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze, 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5012-443X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emiliano","family":"Sisinni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze, 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6349-4410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze, 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7300-1053","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Rinaldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze, 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}]},{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Depari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze, 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3446-2604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Bellagente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze, 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8311-7145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide","family":"Della Giustina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unareti S.p.A., Via Alessandro Lamarmora, 230, 25124 Brescia, Italy"}]},{"given":"Alessandra","family":"Flammini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze, 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.03.107","article-title":"Towards the next generation of smart grids: Semantic and holonic multi-agent management of distributed energy resources","volume":"77","author":"Howell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2424","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2014.2361486","article-title":"A Review of Architectures and Concepts for Intelligence in Future Electric Energy Systems","volume":"62","author":"Strasser","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ded\u00e9, A., Della Giustina, D., Massa, G., Pasetti, M., and Rinaldi, S. (2016, January 22\u201324). A smart PV module with integrated electrical storage for smart grid applications. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion (SPEEDAM 2016), Anacapri, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/SPEEDAM.2016.7525997"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Marchi, B., Pasetti, M., Zanoni, S., and Zavanella, L.E. (2017). The Italian reform of electricity tariffs for non household customers: The impact on distributed generation and energy storage. 22nd Summer School F. Turco of Industrial Systems Engineering, AIDI - Italian Association of Industrial Operations Professors."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N\u00fa\u00f1ez-Mata, O., Palma-Behnke, R., Valencia, F., Mendoza-Araya, P., and Cotos, J. (2018, January 16\u201320). Integrated protection and monitoring system for safe operation of photovoltaic-based isolated microgrids. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting (PESGM 2017), Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PESGM.2017.8273787"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1945","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRD.2016.2528958","article-title":"Advancements in Centralized Protection and Control Within a Substation","volume":"31","author":"Das","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Deliv."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suarez, F.A.F., and Ragaini, E. (June, January 31). IEC61850-based protection system for MV\/LV substations. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Workshop on Power Electronics and Power Quality Applications (PEPQA 2017), Bogota, Colombia.","DOI":"10.1109\/PEPQA.2017.7981690"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1109\/TEC.2016.2533630","article-title":"Power Synchronization Control for Grid-Connected Current-Source Inverter-Based Photovoltaic Systems","volume":"31","author":"Radwan","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Energy Convers."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bignucolo, F., Cerretti, A., Coppo, M., Savio, A., and Turri, R. (2017). Impact of distributed generation grid code requirements on islanding detection in LV networks. Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/en10020156"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bignucolo, F., Cerretti, A., Coppo, M., Savio, A., and Turri, R. (2017). Effects of energy storage systems grid code requirements on interface protection performances in low voltage networks. Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/en10030387"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3775","DOI":"10.3390\/en8053775","article-title":"A new protection system for islanding detection in LV distribution systems","volume":"8","author":"Russo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsr.2016.07.004","article-title":"Protection of smart substation based on WLAN complies with IEC 61850 using traveling wave analysis","volume":"140","author":"Ali","year":"2016","journal-title":"Electr. Power Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijepes.2017.09.024","article-title":"Performance of communication networks for Integrity protection systems based on travelling wave with IEC 61850","volume":"95","author":"Ali","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cataliotti, A., Cosentino, V., Guaiana, S., Di Cara, D., Panzavecchia, N., and Tin\u00e8, G. (2014, January 24\u201326). An interface protection system with power line communication for distributed generators remote control. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Workshop on Applied Measurements for Power Systems (AMPS 2014), Aachen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/AMPS.2014.6947716"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cataliotti, A., Cosentino, V., Di Cara, D., Guaiana, S., Panzavecchia, N., Tin\u00e8, G., Gallo, D., Landi, C., Landi, M., and Luiso, M. (2015, January 23\u201325). Experimental evaluation of an hybrid communication system architecture for smart grid applications. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Workshop on Applied Measurements for Power Systems (AMPS 2015), Aachen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/AMPS.2015.7312745"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angrisani, L., Bonavolont\u00e0, F., Liccardo, A., and Lo Moriello, R.S. (2018). On the use of LORA technology for logic selectivity in MV distribution networks. Energies, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/en11113079"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pasetti, M., Rinaldi, S., Sisinni, E., Ferrari, P., and Flammini, A. (2019, January 25\u201327). On the Use of Class B LoRaWAN for the Coordination of Smart Interface Protection Systems. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 10th International Workshop on Applied Measurements for Power Systems (AMPS 2019), Aachen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/AMPS.2019.8897774"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sgarbossa, R., Santa, L.D., Mattavelli, P., Turri, R., and Cerretti, A. (2016, January 17\u201321). Analysis of interface protection system with Distributed Energy Resources compliant with the most recent grid codes: The unintentional islanding case. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting (PESGM 2016), Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PESGM.2016.7741986"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Italian Electrical Committee (CEI) (2019, November 01). Quesiti relativi all\u2019Allegato M della Norma CEI 0-16. Available online: https:\/\/www.ceinorme.it\/it\/norme-cei-0-16-e-0-21\/faq-0-16.html."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flammini, A., Pasetti, M., Rinaldi, S., Bellagente, P., Ciribini, A.L.C., Tagliabue, L.C., Zavanella, L.E., Zanoni, S., Oggioni, G., and Pedrazzi, G. (2018, January 3\u20135). A Living Lab and Testing Infrastructure for the Development of Innovative Smart Energy Solutions: The eLUX Laboratory of the University of Brescia. Proceedings of the 110th AEIT International Conference, Bari, Italy.","DOI":"10.23919\/AEIT.2018.8577329"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6730719","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/6730719","article-title":"Performance Evaluation of LoRaWAN Communication Scalability in Large-Scale Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"2018","author":"Lavric","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zyrianoff, I., Heideker, A., Silva, D., Kleinschmidt, J., Soininen, J.P., Cinotti, T.S., and Kamienski, C. (2020). Architecting and deploying IoT smart applications: A performance\u2013oriented approach. Sensors (Switzerland), 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20010084"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delobel, F., El Rachkidy, N., and Guitton, A. (2017, January 4\u20137). Analysis of the Delay of Confirmed Downlink Frames in Class B of LoRaWAN. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 85th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCSpring.2017.8108412"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finnegan, J., Brown, S., and Farrell, R. (2018, January 29\u201331). Evaluating the Scalability of LoRa WanGateways for Class B Communication in ns-3. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Conference on Standards for Communications and Networking (CSCN), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSCN.2018.8581759"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3340","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2017.2746378","article-title":"Evaluation of the IoT LoRaWAN Solution for Distributed Measurement Applications","volume":"66","author":"Rizzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2019.03.002","article-title":"A test methodology for evaluating architectural delays of LoRaWAN implementations","volume":"56","author":"Carvalho","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2859639","article-title":"Synchronization Uncertainty Versus Power Efficiency in LoRaWAN Networks","volume":"68","author":"Rizzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pop, A.I., Raza, U., Kulkarni, P., and Sooriyabandara, M. (2017, January 4\u20138). Does Bidirectional Traffic Do More Harm Than Good in LoRaWAN Based LPWA Networks?. Proceedings of the IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM 2017), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2017.8254509"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Technical standard CEI 2016 (2016). Reference Technical Rules for the Connection of Active and Passive Consumers to the HV and MV Electrical Networks of Distribution Company, Italian Electrical Committee (CEI). CEI 0-16;V2:2016-07."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Technical standard CEI 2016 (2016). Reference Technical Rules for the Connection of Active and Passive Users to the LV Electrical Utilities, Italian Electrical Committee (CEI). CEI 0-21:2016-07."}],"container-title":["Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2224-2708\/9\/1\/13\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T08:59:40Z","timestamp":1760173180000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2224-2708\/9\/1\/13"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,21]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jsan9010013"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jsan9010013","relation":{},"ISSN":["2224-2708"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2224-2708","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,21]]}}}