{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T23:22:45Z","timestamp":1780442565450,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]],"date-time":"2021-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637193600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JTAER"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The objective of this study is to explore the impact of electronic commerce on employment rate for a sample covering the whole 27 Member States of the European Union (EU-27), from 2010 to 2019. Moreover, this research explores the clusters of nations with reference to electronic commerce adoption and employment rate dynamics. The outcomes of cluster analysis show that Western Europe reveals the most developed e-commerce marketplace in EU-27, shown by Internet accessibility and high penetration rate of digital tools, and the lowest figures are registered in the Eastern part of Europe. Furthermore, the empirical findings of the panel data fixed-effects and the generalized least squares regressions suggest that electronic commerce influences employment rate positively. By including country-level control variables (real GDP growth rate, research and development expenditure, employed ICT specialists, enterprises with Internet access), the outcomes reveal that one percentage change in enterprises\u2019 total turnover from e-commerce sales, enterprises\u2019 turnover from web sales, and enterprises with e-commerce sales of at least 1% turnover will increase employment rate by 0.205, 0.258, and 0.350 percentage points. Furthermore, the econometric evidence from the method of moments quantile regression models with fixed effects reinforces our findings. Enterprises\u2019 total turnover from e-commerce sales and the percentage of enterprises with e-commerce sales of at least 1% turnover positively influence employment rate for all quintiles, but in the case of enterprises\u2019 turnover from web sales, the effect is positive only for the quintiles ranging from 0.5\u20130.8.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jtaer16070172","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]],"date-time":"2021-11-18T08:53:56Z","timestamp":1637225636000},"page":"3157-3183","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Exploring the Impact of Electronic Commerce on Employment Rate: Panel Data Evidence from European Union Countries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2911-6480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0218tefan Cristian","family":"Gherghina","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Finance, Faculty of Finance and Banking, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, 010374 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mihai Alexandru","family":"Botezatu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, Statistics and Mathematics, School of Computer Science for Business Management, Romanian-American University, 012101 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5494-5673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liliana Nicoleta","family":"Simionescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Finance, Faculty of Finance and Banking, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, 010374 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kapsos, S. (2005). The employment intensity of growth: Trends and macroeconomic determinants. Employ. Strategy Pap., 143\u2013201.","DOI":"10.1057\/9780230627383_4"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"United Nations (2015). Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"European Commission (2020). EUROPE 2020 a Strategy for Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth\u2014COM(2010) 2020 Final, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"European Commission (2015). A Digital Single Market Strategy for Europe\u2014COM(2015) 192 Final, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpolmod.2016.12.004","article-title":"The impact of ICT and e-commerce on employment in Europe","volume":"39","author":"Biagi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Policy Model"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Lone, S., Harboul, N., and Weltevreden, J.W.J. (2021). 2021 European E-Commerce Report, Ecommerce Europe."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"World Economic Forum (2020). The Future of Jobs Report 2020, World Economic Forum."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zatonatska, T., and Fedirko, O. (2019, January 18\u201320). Modeling of the E-Commerce Impact on the Employment in EU. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Trends in Information Theory (ATIT), Kyiv, Ukraine.","DOI":"10.1109\/ATIT49449.2019.9030427"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.7906\/indecs.18.2.17","article-title":"Quality of E-commerce practices in European enterprises: Cluster analysis approach","volume":"18","author":"Zoroja","year":"2020","journal-title":"INDECS"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1467-6419.2003.00211.x","article-title":"The mystery of regional unemployment differentials: Theoretical and empirical explanations","volume":"17","author":"Elhorst","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Econ. Surv."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infoecopol.2017.03.002","article-title":"Are ICT displacing workers in the short run? Evidence from seven European countries","volume":"39","author":"Pantea","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inf. Econ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpe.2015.10.003","article-title":"E-commerce trends and impacts across Europe","volume":"170","author":"Falk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Econ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laitsou, E., Kargas, A., and Varoutas, D. (2017, January 23\u201324). The impact of ICT on economic growth of Greece and EU-28 under economic crisis. Proceedings of the 2017 Internet of Things Business Models, Users, and Networks, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark.","DOI":"10.1109\/CTTE.2017.8260993"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.3846\/16111699.2012.754375","article-title":"Does ICT capital affect economic growth in the EU-15 and EU-12 countries?","volume":"16","author":"Hanclova","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Bus. Econ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infoecopol.2008.12.001","article-title":"The contribution of information and communication technology investments to Greek economic growth: An analytical growth accounting framework","volume":"21","author":"Antonopoulos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Inf. Econ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"European Commission (2021). The European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2015.06.005","article-title":"Mobile telecommunications service and economic growth: Evidence from China","volume":"40","author":"Ward","year":"2016","journal-title":"Telecommun. Policy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2013.07.003","article-title":"Information technology and its changing roles to economic growth and productivity in Australia","volume":"38","author":"Shahiduzzaman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Telecommun. Policy"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"765","article-title":"The effect of information and communication technology on economic growth: Arab world case","volume":"6","author":"Hodrab","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Trade Econ. Financ. Issue"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"46","article-title":"The effect of ICT on economic growth: Further evidence","volume":"5","author":"Nasab","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Bus. Adm."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Purnama, Y.A., and Mitomo, H. (2018, January 1\u20134). The impact of ICT on regional economic growth: Empirical evidence from 34 provinces of Indonesia. Proceedings of the 29th European Regional Conference of the International Telecommunications Society (ITS): \u201cTowards a Digital Future: Turning Technology into Markets?\u201d, Trento, Italy."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1177\/0022185617741924","article-title":"Information technology and employment: The impact of job tasks and worker skills","volume":"60","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ind. Relat. J."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"4149","article-title":"The impact of information and communication technology on employment of selected OIC countries","volume":"7","author":"Sepehrdoust","year":"2016","journal-title":"Afr. J. Bus. Manag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1080\/10438599.2014.918438","article-title":"The economic impact of digital technologies in Europe","volume":"23","author":"Evangelista","year":"2014","journal-title":"Econ. Innov. New Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"335","article-title":"Exploring information and communications technology adoption in enterprises and its impact on innovation performance of European countries","volume":"62","author":"Bach","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ekonomick\u00fd \u010dasopis"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.2495\/SDP160281","article-title":"ICT as a sustainable economic solution for emerging countries","volume":"210","author":"Abdollahpouri","year":"2016","journal-title":"WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Kumar, V., Arif, T., and Malik, M.B. (2014, January 26\u201327). Role of ICT in driving e-commerce business in developing countries. Proceedings of the National Conference on Recent Innovations & Advancements in Information Technology, Department of Information Technology, BGSB University, Rajour, India."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.5539\/mas.v5n2p171","article-title":"Towards digital economy: The development of ICT and E-commerce in Malaysia","volume":"5","author":"Jehangir","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mod. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Fang, C., Yang, D., and Meiyan, W. (2009). Employment and Inequality Outcomes in China, Citeseer."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, W.-H., Lin, Y.-J., and Lee, H.-F. (2019). Impact of population and workforce aging on economic growth: Case study of Taiwan. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11226301"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Labour Force participation and economic growth in Nigeria","volume":"10","author":"Yakubu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Manag. Appl. Econ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.5539\/ijef.v11n2p155","article-title":"Economic development and participation of women in services sector: Empirical evidence from Egypt","volume":"11","author":"Elkhalek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Financ. Econ."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Rama, M. (2013). Globalization and workers in developing countries. J. Stat. Soc. Inq. Soc. Irel."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"115","article-title":"Globalization, FDI and employment in Vietnam","volume":"15","author":"Jenkins","year":"2006","journal-title":"Transnatl. Corp."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/S2212-5671(14)00090-2","article-title":"Employment\u2014cause and effect of the economic growth","volume":"8","author":"Ioan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Econ. Financ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-018-1970-8","article-title":"Employment for sustainable development: Sectoral efficiencies in EU countries","volume":"143","author":"Cyrek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soc. Indic. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flinn, C.J., and Heckman, J.J. (1982). Models for the Analysis of Labor Force Dynamics, National Bureau of Economic Research. Working Paper.","DOI":"10.3386\/w0857"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2015.09.010","article-title":"Are intangibles more productive in ICT-intensive industries? Evidence from EU countries","volume":"40","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Telecommun. Policy"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2015.08.006","article-title":"Information and communication technology and economic growth in India","volume":"40","author":"Erumban","year":"2016","journal-title":"Telecommun. Policy"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Botezatu, M.A. (2019, January 14). Organizational Sustainability, Modern Management and IT&C Impact on Local Development. Proceedings of the International E-Conference \u201cEnterprises in the Global Economy\u201d, Timisoara, Romania."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1287\/isre.2015.0618","article-title":"On the longitudinal effects of IT use on firm-level employment","volume":"27","author":"Atasoy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"255","article-title":"Electronic commerce: A study on benefits and challenges in an emerging economy","volume":"16","author":"Khan","year":"2016","journal-title":"GJMBR B Econ. Commer."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"3","article-title":"Employment impact of electronic business","volume":"124","author":"Hecker","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mon. Labor Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2011.09.010","article-title":"The impact of e-commerce on international trade and employment","volume":"24","author":"Terzi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"633","article-title":"Impact of internet and E-commerce on the labour market","volume":"43","author":"Singh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Indian J. Ind. Relat."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100908","DOI":"10.1016\/j.elerap.2019.100908","article-title":"Exploring the growth challenge of mobile payment platforms: A business model perspective","volume":"40","author":"Jocevski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Electron. Commer. Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Ksenija, D., Anita, P., and Irena, P. (2013, January 25\u201327). Internet banking usage in selected european countries: Multiple regression analysis approach. Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Operational Research, Dolenjske Toplice, Slovenia."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Domadenik, P., Koman, M., and Redek, T. (2018). SHAPING the Future: Opportunities and Challenges of E-Commerce, \u010casnik Finance."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Bilerman, M., Chua, J., Guy, A., and McShane, K. (2017). Technology at Work v3.0: Automating E-Commerce from Click to Pick to Door, Citi GPS: Global Perspectives & Solutions, Oxford Martin School and Citi."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Bram, J., and Gorton, N. (2017). How Is Online Shopping Affecting Retail Employment?, Federal Reserve Bank."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turban, E., Outland, J., King, D., Lee, J.K., Liang, T.-P., and Turban, D.C. (2018). Electronic Commerce 2018. A Managerial and Social Networks Perspective, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-58715-8"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Meyersohn, N. (2021, September 25). Amazon Will Hire 125,000 Workers, Dangling $3000 Bonuses for Some Jobs. Available online: https:\/\/edition.cnn.com\/2021\/09\/14\/business\/amazon-hiring-jobs\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Zandi, M., Koropeckyj, S., Singh, V., and Matsiras, P. (2016). The Impact of Electronic Payments on Economic Growth, Moody\u2019s Corporation."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"71","article-title":"The effect of E-commerce on SME performance","volume":"1","author":"Sedighi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Res. Manag. Econ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jovanovi\u0107, J.\u0160., Vujadinovi\u0107, R., Mitreva, E., Fragassa, C., and Vujovi\u0107, A. (2020). The relationship between E-commerce and firm performance: The mediating role of internet sales channels. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12176993"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Americo, A., and Veronico, A. (2018). The Effect of E-Commerce on Employment in Retail Sector, Mimeo."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.4067\/S0718-18762017000300005","article-title":"Social commerce design: A framework and application","volume":"12","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Theor. Appl. Electron. Commer. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.elerap.2012.12.003","article-title":"From e-commerce to social commerce: A close look at design features","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Electron. Commer. Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Yun, Z.-S. (2011). Testing a Theoretical Model to Examine the Relationships Among E-Social Shopping Motivation, Perception, and Behavioral Intention, Michigan State University Retailing."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.4067\/S0718-18762018000100103","article-title":"Behavioral customer loyalty in online shopping: The role of E-service quality and E-recovery","volume":"13","author":"Shafiee","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Theor. Appl. Electron. Commer. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.4067\/S0718-18762020000100105","article-title":"Grey relational classification of consumers\u2019 textual evaluations in E-commerce","volume":"15","author":"Fidan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Theor. Appl. Electron. Commer. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gyenge, B., M\u00e1t\u00e9, Z., Vida, I., Bilan, Y., and Vasa, L. (2021). A new strategic marketing management model for the specificities of E-commerce in the supply chain. J. Theor. Appl. Electron. Commer. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/jtaer16040064"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sumanjeet (2009). Social implications of electronic commerce. J. Soc. Sci., 21, 91\u201397.","DOI":"10.1080\/09718923.2009.11892757"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.4067\/S0718-18762019000300105","article-title":"Retailers\u2019 differentiation strategy and pricing in the rental market of digital content: A case of E-textbooks","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Theor. Appl. Electron. Commer. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meghisan-Toma, G.-M., Puiu, S., Florea, N.M., Meghisan, F., and Doran, D. (2021). Generation Z\u2019 young adults and M-commerce use in Romania. J. Theor. Appl. Electron. Commer. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/jtaer16050082"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Statista (2021, March 26). Mobile Retail Commerce Sales as Percentage of Retail E-Commerce Sales Worldwide from 2016 to 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/806336\/mobile-retail-commerce-share-worldwide\/."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Savvy, M. (2021, March 26). Global Mobile eCommerce Statistics, Trends & Forecasts. Available online: https:\/\/www.merchantsavvy.co.uk\/mobile-ecommerce-statistics\/."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Lipsman, A. (2021, July 15). Global Ecommerce 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.emarketer.com\/content\/global-ecommerce-2019."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1108\/10662240810912783","article-title":"E-commerce and socio-economic development: Conceptualizing the link","volume":"18","author":"Boateng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Internet Res."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Oliver Wyman (2021). Is E-Commerce Good for Europe?, Oliver Wyman. Economic and Environmental Impact Study."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"633","article-title":"Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)","volume":"3","author":"Gala","year":"2002","journal-title":"Electron. Commer. Int. Trade Employ. Rev. Issues"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2011.09.140","article-title":"A study of superiority of e-trade compared to traditional methods of commerce in overcoming crises: Case study of kitapix.com","volume":"24","author":"Aydin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"1","article-title":"Modeling and mathematical analysis of labor force evolution","volume":"2019","author":"ElFadily","year":"2019","journal-title":"Model. Simul. Eng."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2013.12.440","article-title":"Econometric analysis of the employment rate for the E.U. countries","volume":"109","author":"Stanila","year":"2019","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1435-5957.2007.00136.x","article-title":"Labour force participation rates at the regional and national levels of the European Union: An integrated analysis","volume":"86","author":"Elhorst","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pap. Reg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"5","article-title":"Innovative calculation model for evaluating regional sustainable development","volume":"54","author":"Botha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Econ. Comput. Econ. Cybern. Stud. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1080\/17421772.2016.1224374","article-title":"Regional labour force participation across the European Union: A time\u2013space recursive modelling approach with endogenous regressors","volume":"12","author":"Vega","year":"2017","journal-title":"Spat. Econ. Anal."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.2478\/ngoe-2018-0003","article-title":"Productivity and Economic Growth in the European Union: Impact of Investment in Research and Development","volume":"64","author":"Nekrep","year":"2018","journal-title":"Na\u0161e Gospod. Our Econ."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"153","article-title":"Effects of R&D and innovation on income in EU countries: New generation panel cointegration and causality analysis","volume":"23","author":"Gocer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Econ."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1142\/S0217590809003239","article-title":"The impact of R&D on the Singapore economy: An empirical evaluation","volume":"54","author":"Ho","year":"2009","journal-title":"Singap. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.2298\/PAN1101067V","article-title":"R&D and economic growth in Slovenia: A dynamic general equilibrium approach with endogenous growth","volume":"58","author":"Miroslava","year":"2011","journal-title":"Panoeconomicus"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Ali-Yrkk\u00f6, J. (2005). Impact of Public R&D Financing on Employment, The Research Institute of the Finnish Economy (ETLA)."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"5","article-title":"The effect of R&D subsidies and tax incentives on employment: An evaluation for small firms in France","volume":"493","author":"Sicsic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Econ. Stat."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1080\/13504851.2019.1644425","article-title":"What types of public R&D support increase employment performance? Evidence from Korean firm-level data","volume":"27","author":"Bong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Econ. Lett."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.17310\/ntj.2013.2.01","article-title":"The effects of government subsidies on business R&D employment: Evidence from OECD countries","volume":"66","author":"Thomson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Natl. Tax. J."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciarli, T., Marzucchi, A., Salgado, E., and Savona, M. (2018). The Impact of R&D on Employment and Self-Employment Composition in Local Labour Markets, European Union. Working Paper.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3147861"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11749-007-0046-x","article-title":"Panel data analysis\u2014advantages and challenges","volume":"16","author":"Hsiao","year":"2007","journal-title":"TEST"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/0954-349X(92)90008-T","article-title":"Panel data analysis: An introductory overview","volume":"3","author":"Blundell","year":"1992","journal-title":"Struct. Change Econ. D"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baltagi, B.H. (2021). Econometric Analysis of Panel Data, Springer. [6th ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-53953-5"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1910","DOI":"10.35940\/ijitee.K2121.0981119","article-title":"K-means Clustering Algorithm Based on E-Commerce Big Data","volume":"8","author":"Shaik","year":"2019","journal-title":"IJITEE"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2009.09.011","article-title":"Data clustering: 50 years beyond K-means","volume":"31","author":"Jain","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kliemann, L., and Sanders, P. (2016). Theoretical Analysis of the k-Means Algorithm\u2014A Survey. Algorithm Engineering: Selected Results and Surveys, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-49487-6"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.2307\/1913827","article-title":"Specification tests in econometrics","volume":"46","author":"Hausman","year":"1978","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2019.04.009","article-title":"Quantiles via moments","volume":"213","author":"Machado","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Econom."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmva.2004.05.006","article-title":"Quantile regression for longitudinal data","volume":"94","author":"Koenker","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Multivar. Anal."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1368-423X.2011.00349.x","article-title":"A simple approach to quantile regression for panel data","volume":"14","author":"Canay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Econom. J."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Ecommerce Europe (2021). Impact of the Coronavirus on E-Commerce, Ecommerce Europe. Survey Results Report, 21 January 2021."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Ecommerce Europe (2020). Impact of the Coronavirus on E-Commerce, Ecommerce Europe. Survey Results Report, 14 May 2020."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Euromonitor (2021, September 28). E-Commerce in Western Europe. Available online: https:\/\/www.euromonitor.com\/e-commerce-in-western-europe\/report."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"eMarketer (2021, September 28). Western Europe to See $10.83 Billion More in Ecommerce Sales than Expected. Available online: https:\/\/www.emarketer.com\/content\/western-europe-see-10-83-billion-more-ecommerce-sales-than-expected."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"International Trade Administration (2021, September 28). Ireland\u2014Country Commercial Guide, Available online: https:\/\/www.trade.gov\/knowledge-product\/ireland-ecommerce."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"JP Morgan (2021, September 28). E-Commerce Payments Trends: Ireland. Available online: https:\/\/www.jpmorgan.com\/europe\/merchant-services\/insights\/reports\/ireland."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"JP Morgan (2021, September 28). 2020 E-Commerce Payments Trends Report: Denmark. Available online: https:\/\/www.jpmorgan.com\/merchant-services\/insights\/reports\/denmark-2020."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Ecommercenews (2021, September 28). Ecommerce in Denmark. Available online: https:\/\/ecommercenews.eu\/ecommerce-in-europe\/ecommerce-in-denmark\/."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Nordea (2021, September 28). E-Commerce in Sweden. Available online: https:\/\/www.nordeatrade.com\/en\/explore-new-market\/sweden\/e-commerce."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"PostNord (2020). E-Commerce in Europe 2020, PostNord."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"2019","article-title":"How E-commerce is raising pay and creating jobs around the country","volume":"11","author":"Mandel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Forbes"},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"Rugaber, C.S. (Denver Post, 2017). Why the explosive growth of e-commerce could mean more jobs, Denver Post."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Mandel, M. (2007). How Ecommerce Creates Jobs and Reduces Income Inequality, Progressive Policy Institute."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"53","article-title":"Variance inflation factors in the analysis of complex survey data","volume":"38","author":"Liao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Surv. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1007\/s11135-006-9018-6","article-title":"A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors","volume":"41","year":"2007","journal-title":"Qual. Quant."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"Gujarati, D.N. (2004). Basic Econometrics, Tata McGraw Hill. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Kleinbaum, D.G., Kupper, L.L., Nizam, A., and Rosenberg, E.S. (2014). Applied Regression Analysis and Other Multivariable Methods, Cengage Learning."}],"container-title":["Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/0718-1876\/16\/7\/172\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:32:14Z","timestamp":1760167934000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/0718-1876\/16\/7\/172"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]]},"references-count":113,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["jtaer16070172"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jtaer16070172","relation":{},"ISSN":["0718-1876"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0718-1876","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]]}}}