{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]],"date-time":"2026-03-28T18:13:07Z","timestamp":1774721587680,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753315200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MAKE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Applying language models (LMs) and generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) to the study of Ancient Greek offers promising opportunities. However, it faces substantial challenges due to the language\u2019s morphological complexity and lack of annotated resources. Despite growing interest, no systematic overview of existing research currently exists. To address this gap, a systematic literature review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 methodology. Twenty-seven peer-reviewed studies were identified and analyzed, focusing on application areas such as machine translation, morphological analysis, named entity recognition (NER), and emotion detection. The review reveals six key findings, highlighting both the technical advances and persistent limitations, particularly the scarcity of large, domain-specific corpora and the need for better integration into educational contexts. Future developments should focus on building richer resources and tailoring models to the unique features of Ancient Greek, thereby fully realizing the potential of these technologies in both research and teaching.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/make7030071","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T10:28:09Z","timestamp":1753352889000},"page":"71","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Harnessing Language Models for Studying the Ancient Greek Language: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-9485-183X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diamanto","family":"Tzanoulinou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7687-5642","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Loukas","family":"Triantafyllopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9758-0819","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vassilios S.","family":"Verykios","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.54783\/ijsoc.v5i3.743","article-title":"The influence of Ancient Greece: A historical and cultural analysis","volume":"5","author":"Carter","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Soc."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Peraki, M., and Vougiouklaki, C. (2025, April 25). How Has Greek Influenced the English Language. British Council. Available online: https:\/\/www.britishcouncil.org\/voices-magazine\/how-has-greek-influenced-english-language."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1017\/S205863102400014X","article-title":"I think learning ancient Greek via video game is\u2026\u2019: An online survey to understand perceptions of digital game-based learning for ancient Greek","volume":"25","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Class. Teach."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Reggiani, N. (2013). Multicultural education in the ancient world: Dimensions of diversity in the first contacts between Greeks and Egyptians. Multicultural Education: From Theory and Practice, Cambridge Scholars Publishing."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"World Stock Market (2025, March 10). France: Latin and Ancient Greek No Longer Excite Students. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldstockmarket.net\/france-latin-and-ancient-greek-no-longer-excite-students\/."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1017\/S2058631024000151","article-title":"Classical studies trends: Teaching classics in secondary schools in the UK","volume":"25","author":"Hunt","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Class. Teach."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1017\/S2058631021000751","article-title":"A new classical Greek qualification","volume":"23","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Class. Teach."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Tzotzi, A. (2020). Ancient Greek and Language Policy 1830\u20132020, Reasons\u2013Goals\u2013Results. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Hellenic Open University]. Available online: https:\/\/apothesis.eap.gr\/archive\/download\/df8d7eb2-c928-402a-84d8-694485d2562c.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1017\/S2058631023000430","article-title":"A new frontier: AI and ancient language pedagogy","volume":"24","author":"Ross","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Class. Teach."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keersmaekers, A., and Mercelis, W. (2024, January 15). Adapting transformer models to morphological tagging of two highly inflectional languages: A case study on Ancient Greek and Latin. Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Machine Learning for Ancient Languages (ML4AL 2024), Bangkok, Thailand.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.ml4al-1.17"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195184","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3033979","article-title":"Part-of-speech tagging using multiview learning","volume":"8","author":"Lim","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Cowen-Breen, C., Brooks, C., Graziosi, B., and Haubold, J. (2023, January 8). Logion: Machine-learning based detection and correction of textual errors in Greek philology. Proceedings of the Ancient Language Processing Workshop (RANLP-ALP 2023), Varna, Bulgaria. Available online: https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/2023.alp-1.20.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Vaswani, A., Shazeer, N., Parmar, N., Uszkoreit, J., Jones, L., Gomez, A.N., Kaiser, \u0141., and Polosukhin, I. (2017). Attention is all you need. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, Curran Associates, Inc."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Bommasani, R., Hudson, D.A., Adeli, E., Altman, R., Arora, S., von Arx, S., Bernstein, M.S., Bohg, J., Bosselut, A., and Brunskill, E. (2021). On the opportunities and risks of foundation models. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1162\/coli_a_00525","article-title":"Can language models handle recursively nested grammatical structures? A case study on comparing models and humans","volume":"50","author":"Lampinen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Linguist."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berti, M. (2019). Digital Classical Philology: Ancient Greek and Latin in the Digital Revolution, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110599572"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1162\/coli_a_00481","article-title":"Machine learning for ancient languages: A survey","volume":"49","author":"Sommerschield","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Linguist."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riemenschneider, F., and Frank, A. (2023). Exploring large language models for classical philology. arXiv.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.acl-long.846"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105918","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2021.105918","article-title":"PRISMA 2020 statement: What\u2019s new and the importance of reporting guidelines","volume":"88","author":"Sohrabi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, P., Rutten, G., and Lefever, E. (2021, January 11). A pilot study for BERT language modelling and morphological analysis for ancient and medieval Greek. Proceedings of the 5th Joint SIGHUM Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, Humanities and Literature, Punta Cana, Dominican Republic.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.latechclfl-1.15"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kostkan, J., Kardos, M., Mortensen, J.P.B., and Nielbo, K.L. (2023, January 5). OdyCy\u2013A general-purpose NLP pipeline for Ancient Greek. Proceedings of the 7th Joint SIGHUM Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, Humanities and Literature (EACL 2023), Dubrovnik, Croatia.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.latechclfl-1.14"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1","article-title":"Linguistic annotation of Byzantine book epigrams","volume":"1","author":"Swaelens","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lang. Resour. Eval."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gessler, L., and Schneider, N. (2023). Syntactic inductive bias in transformer language models: Especially helpful for low-resource languages?. arXiv.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.conll-1.17"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beersmans, M., Keersmaekers, A., Graaf, E., Van de Cruys, T., Depauw, M., and Fantoli, M. (2024, January 15). \u201cGotta catch \u2018em all!\u201d: Retrieving people in Ancient Greek texts combining transformer models and domain knowledge. Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Machine Learning for Ancient Languages (ML4AL 2024), Bangkok, Thailand.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.ml4al-1.16"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Gallardo, C.E., Tran, H.T.H., Hamdi, A., and Doucet, A. (2024, January 24\u201327). Leveraging open large language models for historical named entity recognition. Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries (TPDL 2024), Ljubljana, Slovenia.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-72437-4_22"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Gallardo, C.E., Boros, E., Girdhar, N., Hamdi, A., Moreno, J.G., and Doucet, A. (2023, January 26\u201330). Yes but\u2026 can ChatGPT identify entities in historical documents?. Proceedings of the 2023 ACM\/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL 2023), Santa Fe, NM, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/JCDL57899.2023.00034"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lamar, A.K., and Chambers, A. (2018, January 5\u20137). Preserving personality through a pivot language low-resource NMT of ancient languages. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE MIT Undergraduate Research Technology Conference (URTC 2018), Cambridge, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/URTC45901.2018.9244794"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wannaz, A.C., and Miyagawa, S. (2024, January 16). Assessing large language models in translating Coptic and Ancient Greek ostraca. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Natural Language Processing for Digital Humanities (NLP4DH 2024), Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.nlp4dh-1.44"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Rapacz, M., and Smywi\u0144ski-Pohl, A. (2025, January 20). Low-resource interlinear translation: Morphology-enhanced neural models for Ancient Greek. Proceedings of the First Workshop on Language Models for Low-Resource Languages, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Available online: https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/2025.loreslm-1.11.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Riemenschneider, F., and Frank, A. (2023). Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit: Detecting Latin allusions to ancient Greek literature. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Schmidt, G., Vybornaya, V., and Yamshchikov, I.P. (2024, January 4-6). Fine-tuning pre-trained language models for authorship attribution of the Pseudo-Dionysian Ars Rhetorica. Proceedings of the Computational Humanities Research Conference (CHR 2024), Aarhus, Denmark. Available online: https:\/\/ceur-ws.org\/Vol-3834\/paper139.pdf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Umphrey, R., Roberts, J., and Roberts, L. (2024). Investigating expert-in-the-loop LLM discourse patterns for ancient intertextual analysis. arXiv.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.nlp4dh-1.4"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavlopoulos, J., Kougia, V., Platanou, P., and Essler, H. (2023). Detecting erroneous handwritten Byzantine text recognition. Findings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP 2023), Association for Computational Linguistics. Available online: https:\/\/ipavlopoulos.github.io\/files\/pavlopoulos_etal_2023_htrec.pdf.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.findings-emnlp.524"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Picca, D., and Pavlopoulos, J. (2024, January 20\u201325). Deciphering emotional landscapes in the Iliad: A novel French-annotated dataset for emotion recognition. Proceedings of the 2024 Joint International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC-COLING 2024), Torino, Italy. Available online: https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/2024.lrec-main.399.pdf."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Krahn, K., Tate, D., and Lamicela, A.C. (2023). Sentence embedding models for Ancient Greek using multilingual knowledge distillation. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1093\/llc\/fqad087","article-title":"AGREE: A new benchmark for the evaluation of distributional semantic models of ancient Greek","volume":"39","author":"Stopponi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Digit. Scholarsh. Humanit."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1075\/dia.23013.sto","article-title":"Natural language processing for Ancient Greek: Design, advantages and challenges of language models","volume":"41","author":"Stopponi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diachronica"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Pavlopoulos, J., Xenos, A., and Picca, D. (2022, January 20\u201325). Sentiment analysis of Homeric text: The 1st Book of the Iliad. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC 2022), Marseille, France. Available online: https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/2022.lrec-1.765.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kasapakis, V., and Morgado, L. (2024, January 5\u20136). Ancient Greek technology: An immersive learning use case described using a co-intelligent custom ChatGPT assistant. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Intelligent Reality (ICIR 2024), Coimbra, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIR64558.2024.10976798"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Abbondanza, C. (2024, January 25\u201328). Generative AI for teaching Latin and Greek in high school. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Artificial Intelligence Systems in Education, Co-Located with the 23rd International Conference of the Italian Association for Artificial Intelligence (AIxIA 2024), Bolzano, Italy. Available online: https:\/\/ceur-ws.org\/Vol-3879\/AIxEDU2024_paper_11.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1017\/S2058631024000412","article-title":"Treading water: New data on the impact of AI ethics information sessions in classics and ancient language pedagogy","volume":"25","author":"Ross","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Class. Teach."}],"container-title":["Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2504-4990\/7\/3\/71\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:15:09Z","timestamp":1760033709000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2504-4990\/7\/3\/71"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["make7030071"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/make7030071","relation":{},"ISSN":["2504-4990"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2504-4990","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]]}}}