{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:32:18Z","timestamp":1760243538526,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,5]],"date-time":"2013-07-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1372982400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The performance of more than 60 different electromagnetic energy harvesters described in more than 100 publications is benchmarked. The benchmarking is based on earlier published parameters from literature as well as on two novel parameters introduced in this paper. The former allow to compare different harvester conversion principles as well as harvesters of different electrodynamic design principles. The latter consider the impact of ambient and boundary conditions for the most important sub-group, namely the resonant electrodynamic harvesters. The special consideration of how the mechanical damping and the energy conversion effectiveness depend on these conditions enables a fairer benchmarking of this common harvester type. High performing prototypes are identified, and the key parameters are provided for explanation. Finally, beneficial design approaches and the main challenges to maximize the output power are pointed out.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi4030286","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,5]],"date-time":"2013-07-05T12:28:23Z","timestamp":1373027303000},"page":"286-305","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Approaches for a Fair Comparison and Benchmarking of Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Clemens","family":"Cepnik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Micro Actuators, University of Freiburg, IMTEK, Georges-K\u00a8ohler-Allee 102, 79110 Freiburg, Germany"}]},{"given":"Ulrike","family":"Wallrabe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Micro Actuators, University of Freiburg, IMTEK, Georges-K\u00a8ohler-Allee 102, 79110 Freiburg, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Cepnik, C., Lausecker, R., and Wallrabe, U. Review on electrodynamic energy harvesters-a classification approach, Micromachines, in press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2008.927494","article-title":"Energy harvesting from human and machine motion for wireless electronic devices","volume":"96","author":"Mitcheson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3940","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2007.906150","article-title":"Review of microscale magnetic power generation","volume":"43","author":"Arnold","year":"2007","journal-title":"Magn. IEEE Trans."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2005.10.003","article-title":"On energy harvesting from ambient vibration","volume":"293","author":"Stephen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2004.830151","article-title":"Architectures for vibration-driven micropower generators","volume":"13","author":"Mitcheson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechan. Syst."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/17\/9\/S01","article-title":"Performance limits of the three MEMS inertial energy generator transduction types","volume":"17","author":"Mitcheson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Cepnik, C., and Wallrabe, U. (2011, January 15\u201318). On the Comparison, Scaling and Benchmarking of Electromagnetic Vibration Harvesters. Proceedings of PowerMEMS 2011, Seoul, Korea."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2011.01.023","article-title":"Effective optimization of electromagnetic energy harvesters through direct computation of the electromagnetic coupling","volume":"167","author":"Cepnik","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Hang Bao, M. (2000). Micro Mechanical Transducers, Elsevier Science."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(90)85064-B","article-title":"Very high Q-factor resonators in monocrystalline silicon","volume":"21","author":"Buser","year":"1990","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johari, H., Shah, J., and Ayazi, F. (2008, January 13\u201317). High Frequency XYZ-axis Single-Disk Silicon Gyroscope. Proceedings of the IEEE 21st International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, Tucson, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MEMSYS.2008.4443791"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2008.924253","article-title":"Temperature dependence of quality factor in MEMS resonators","volume":"17","author":"Kim","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechan. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5600","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.61.5600","article-title":"Thermoelastic damping in micro-and nanomechanical systems","volume":"61","author":"Lifshitz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prikhodko, I., Zotov, S., Trusov, A., and Shke, A. (2011, January 5\u20139). Sub-degree-per-hour Silicon MEMS Rate Sensor with 1 Million Q-Factor. Proceedings of the Transducers\u201911, IEEE, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2011.5969216"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(01)00569-6","article-title":"Design and fabrication of a new vibration-based electromechanical power generator","volume":"92","author":"White","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/17\/7\/007","article-title":"A micro electromagnetic generator for vibration energy harvesting","volume":"17","author":"Beeby","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2010.2044757","article-title":"Micro-fabricated electromagnetic power generator to scavenge low ambient vibration","volume":"46","author":"Park","year":"2010","journal-title":"Magn. IEEE Trans."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cepnik, C., and Wallrabe, U. (2011, January 5\u20139). A Flat High Performance Micro Energy Harvester Based on a Serpentine Coil with a Single Winding. Proceedings of the Transducers\u201911, IEEE, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2011.5969839"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/16\/9\/S01","article-title":"Non-resonant vibration conversation","volume":"16","author":"Spreemann","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(02)00033-X","article-title":"A laser-micromachined multi-modal resonating power transducer for wireless sensing systems","volume":"97\u201398","author":"Ching","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2010.2059007","article-title":"A vibration-based electromagnetic energy harvester using mechanical frequency up-conversion method","volume":"11","author":"Zorlu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. J. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spreemann, D., and Manoli, Y. (2012). Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesting Devices: Architectures, Design, Modeling and Optimization. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Freiburg].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-2944-5"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Waters, R., Chisum, B., Jazo, H., and Fralick, M. (2008, January 2\u20134). Development of an Electro-Magnetic Transducer for Energy Harvesting of Kinetic Energy and Its\u2019 Applicability to a MEMS-Scale Device. Proceedings of the Nanopower Forum, Irvine, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1007\/s00542-006-0374-x","article-title":"Experimental comparison of macro and micro scale electromagnetic vibration powered generators","volume":"13","author":"Beeby","year":"2007","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3509","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2006.879447","article-title":"Optimization of an electromagnetic energy harvesting device","volume":"42","author":"Saha","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hadas, Z., Zouhar, J., Singule, V., and Ondrusek, C. (2008, January 1\u20133). Design of Energy Harvesting Generator Base on Rapid Prototyping Parts. Proceedings of the 13th Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE\/PEMC), IEEE, Poznan, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/EPEPEMC.2008.4635506"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/SSP.147-149.426","article-title":"Optimal design of vibration power generator for low frequency","volume":"147","author":"Hadas","year":"2009","journal-title":"Solid State Phenom."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(PMG27, 2009). PMG27, Technical report."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(PMG17, 2009). PMG17, Technical report."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2009.11.034","article-title":"Investigations of a nonlinear energy harvester with a bistable potential well","volume":"329","author":"Mann","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Sound d Vib."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(PMG FSH, 2009). PMG FSH, Technical report."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1007\/s00542-005-0506-8","article-title":"Vibration-based automatic power-generation system","volume":"11","author":"Sasaki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barton, D., Burrow, S., and Clare, L. (2010). Energy harvesting from vibrations with a nonlinear oscillator. J. Vib. Acoust., 132.","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4000809"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Torah, R., Beeby, S., Tudor, M., O\u2019Donnell, T., and Roy, S. (December, January 29). Development of a Cantilever Beam Generator Employing Vibration Energy Harvesting. Proceedings of the PowerMEMS 2006, Berkeley, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Roberts (Hampshire, GB), S., and Perpetuum Ltd. (2007). Electromechanical Generator for Converting Mechanical Vibrational Energy into Electrical Energy. (WO2007020383A1), Patent."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Roberts (Hampshire, GB), S., and Perpetuum Ltd. (2008). Electromechanical Generator for Converting Mechanical Vibrational Energy into Electrical Energy. (WO2008132423A1), Patent."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Roberts (Hampshire, GB), S., and Perpetuum Ltd. (2009). Electromechanical Generator for Converting Mechanical Vibrational Energy into Electrical Energy. (WO2009068856A3), Patent."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2007.09.014","article-title":"Design, fabrication and test of integrated micro-scale vibration-based electromagnetic generator","volume":"145","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2007.06.050","article-title":"Performance improvement of a vibration-powered electromagnetic generator by reduced silicon surface roughness","volume":"62","author":"Koukharenko","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Friedrich, K., Wagner, N., and Bessler, W. (Entwicklungsperspektiven von Li-Schwefel und Li-Luft-Batterien, 2013). Entwicklungsperspektiven von Li-Schwefel und Li-Luft-Batterien, Technical report."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1007\/s00542-010-1046-4","article-title":"Power sensitivity of vibration energy harvester","volume":"16","author":"Hadas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/1\/2\/004","article-title":"Resonant silicon sensors","volume":"1","author":"Stemme","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Koyama, T., Bindel, D., He, W., Qu\u00e9vy, E., Govindjee, S., Demmel, J., and Howe, R. (November, January 30). Simulation Tools for Damping in High Frequency Resonators. Proceedings of the IEEE Sensors, Irvine, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Goodman, L. (2002). Harris\u2019 Shock and Vibration Handbook, McGRAW-Hill. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazan, B. (Effect of damping constants and stress distribution on the resonance response of members, 1952). Effect of damping constants and stress distribution on the resonance response of members, Technical report, DTIC Document.","DOI":"10.21236\/AD0003566"}],"container-title":["Micromachines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/4\/3\/286\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:47:46Z","timestamp":1760219266000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/4\/3\/286"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,5]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,9]]}},"alternative-id":["mi4030286"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mi4030286","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-666X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-666X"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,5]]}}}