{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T11:41:54Z","timestamp":1774266114585,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,26]],"date-time":"2014-02-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1393372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mini and micro robots, which can swim in an underwater environment, have drawn widespread research interests because of their potential applicability to the medical or biological fields, including delivery and transportation of bio-materials and drugs,  bio-sensing, and bio-surgery. This paper reviews the recent ideas and developments of these types of self-propelling devices, ranging from the millimeter scale down to the micro and even the nano scale. Specifically, this review article makes an emphasis on various propulsion principles, including methods of utilizing smart actuators, external magnetic\/electric\/acoustic fields, bacteria, chemical reactions, etc. In addition, we compare the propelling speed range, directional control schemes, and advantages of the  above principles.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi5010097","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,26]],"date-time":"2014-02-26T11:03:00Z","timestamp":1393412580000},"page":"97-113","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":71,"title":["Mini and Micro Propulsion for Medical Swimmers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"family":"JianFeng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Swanson School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, 616 Benedum Hall, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA"}]},{"given":"Sung","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Swanson School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, 538G Benedum Hall, 3700 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/S0262-4079(09)63077-3","article-title":"The rise of the miniature medical robots","volume":"204","author":"Vince","year":"2009","journal-title":"New Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1038\/4581121a","article-title":"Voyage of the microbots","volume":"458","author":"Sitti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Rubinstein, L. 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