{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T19:53:54Z","timestamp":1772222034225,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":152,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,8]],"date-time":"2014-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1396915200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review focuses on recent advances in micro- and nano-fabrication techniques and their applications to electrochemical power devices, specifically microfabricated Lithium-ion batteries, enzymatic and microbial fuel cells (biofuel cells), and  dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Although the maturity of these three technologies ranges  from market ready (batteries) to fundamental research (biofuel cells) to applied  research (DSSCs), advances in MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) and NEMS  (Nano-Electro-Mechanical Systems) techniques, particularly modifications in surface area and surface chemistry, and novel genetic and molecular engineering techniques, significantly improve the electrochemical activity of these technologies across the board. For each of these three categories of power-MEMS devices the review covers: (1) The technical challenges facing the performance and fabrication of electrochemical power devices; (2) Current MEMS and NEMS techniques used to improve efficiency; and (3) Future outlook and suggested improvements of MEMS and NEMS for implementation in electrochemical power devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi5020171","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,8]],"date-time":"2014-04-08T18:01:43Z","timestamp":1396980103000},"page":"171-203","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["3-D Micro and Nano Technologies for Improvements in Electrochemical Power Devices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Sunshine","family":"Holmberg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Irvine,  5200 Engineering Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, USA"}]},{"given":"Alexandra","family":"Perebikovsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Irvine, 4129 Frederick Reines Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, USA"}]},{"given":"Lawrence","family":"Kulinsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Irvine,  5200 Engineering Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, USA"}]},{"given":"Marc","family":"Madou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Irvine,  5200 Engineering Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, 5200 Engineering Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Markets and Market (2013). 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