{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T23:13:34Z","timestamp":1782947614386,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":142,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,23]],"date-time":"2016-08-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1471910400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000774","name":"DTRA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HDTRA122221"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HDTRA122221"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000774","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000015","name":"DOE","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DE-NA-0000720"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE-NA-0000720"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000015","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gallium nitride (GaN) is an III-V semiconductor with a direct band-gap of     3 . 4  e  V    . GaN has important potentials in white light-emitting diodes, blue lasers, and field effect transistors because of its super thermal stability and excellent optical properties, playing main roles in future lighting to reduce energy cost and sensors to resist radiations. GaN nanomaterials inherit bulk properties of the compound while possess novel photoelectric properties of nanomaterials. The review focuses on self-assemblies of GaN nanoparticles without templates, growth mechanisms of self-assemblies, and potential applications of the assembled nanostructures on renewable energy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi7090121","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,23]],"date-time":"2016-08-23T10:18:55Z","timestamp":1471947535000},"page":"121","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Free-Standing Self-Assemblies of Gallium Nitride Nanoparticles: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Yucheng","family":"Lan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Engineering Physics, Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD 21251, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianye","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6938-5936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Winnie","family":"Wong-Ng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Materials Science Measurement Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rola","family":"Derbeshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Engineering Physics, Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD 21251, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD 21251, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8289-9707","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdellah","family":"Lisfi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Engineering Physics, Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD 21251, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1063\/1.358463","article-title":"Large band gap SiC, III-V nitride, and II-VI ZnSe-based semiconductor device technologies","volume":"76","author":"Strite","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6727(96)00002-X","article-title":"Progress and prospects of group-III nitride semiconductors","volume":"20","author":"Mohammad","year":"1996","journal-title":"Prog. Quant. Electron."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5393","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.36.5393","article-title":"Crystal Growth and Conductivity Control of Group III Nitride Semiconductors and Their Application to Short Wavelength Light Emitters","volume":"36","author":"Akasaki","year":"1997","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1126\/science.281.5379.956","article-title":"The Roles of Structural Imperfections in InGaN-Based Blue Light-Emitting Diodes and Laser Diodes","volume":"281","author":"Nakamura","year":"1998","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1088\/0256-307X\/16\/2\/011","article-title":"Structure and Heat Capacity of Wurtzite GaN from 113 to 1073 K","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Chin. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.10.676","article-title":"Fundamental energy gap of GaN from photoluminescence excitation spectra","volume":"10","author":"Monemar","year":"1974","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1063\/1.117892","article-title":"Exciton region reflectance of homoepitaxial GaN layers","volume":"69","author":"Korona","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L1998","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.30.L1998","article-title":"High-Power GaN P-N Junction Blue-Light-Emitting Diodes","volume":"30","author":"Nakamura","year":"1991","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2390","DOI":"10.1063\/1.109374","article-title":"High-power InGaN\/GaN double-heterostructure violet light emitting diodes","volume":"62","author":"Nakamura","year":"1993","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1038\/386351a0","article-title":"Nitride-based semiconductors for blue and green light-emitting devices","volume":"386","author":"Ponce","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L1517","DOI":"10.7567\/JJAP.34.L1517","article-title":"Stimulated Emission by Current Injection from an AlGaN\/GaN\/GaInN Quantum Well Device","volume":"34","author":"Akasaki","year":"1995","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L205","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.29.L205","article-title":"Stimulated Emission Near Ultraviolet at Room Temperature from a GaN Film Grown on Sapphire by MOVPE Using an AlN Buffer Layer","volume":"29","author":"Amano","year":"1990","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1786","DOI":"10.1063\/1.109549","article-title":"Metal semiconductor field effect transistor based on single crystal GaN","volume":"62","author":"Kuznia","year":"1993","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7786","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.58.7786","article-title":"Thermopower investigation of n- and p-type GaN","volume":"58","author":"Brandt","year":"1998","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123705","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1927691","article-title":"Thermoelectric effects in wurtzite GaN and AlxGa1-xN alloys","volume":"97","author":"Liu","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"063502","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2779259","article-title":"Lattice thermal conductivity of group-IV and III-V semiconductor alloys","volume":"102","author":"Adachi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1007\/s11664-010-1416-9","article-title":"Thermopower Study of GaN-Based Materials for Next-Generation Thermoelectric Devices and Applications","volume":"40","author":"Hurwitz","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2010.10.048","article-title":"Gallium Nitride Schottky betavoltaic nuclear batteries","volume":"52","author":"Lu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energ. Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074011","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/22\/7\/074011","article-title":"A high open-circuit voltage gallium nitride betavoltaic microbattery","volume":"22","author":"Cheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apradiso.2013.05.010","article-title":"Design and simulation of GaN based Schottky betavoltaic nuclear micro-battery","volume":"80","author":"San","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Radiat. Isot."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740910","DOI":"10.1117\/12.826088","article-title":"Theoretical study on InxGa1-xN\/Si hetero-junction solar cells","volume":"7409","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Lan, Y., and Ren, Z. (2016). Nanomaterials for Sustainable Energy, Springer-Verlag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2325","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-5408(00)00447-5","article-title":"Syntheses and structure of nanocrystalline gallium nitride obtained from ammonothermal method using lithium metal as mineralizator","volume":"35","author":"Lan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1126\/science.277.5330.1287","article-title":"Synthesis of Gallium Nitride Nanorods through a Carbon Nanotube-Confined Reaction","volume":"277","author":"Han","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4095(20020705)14:13\/14<991::AID-ADMA991>3.0.CO;2-L","article-title":"Growth of GaN Nanorods by a Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy Method","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2002","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1021\/nl0510762","article-title":"Faceted and Vertically Aligned GaN Nanorod Arrays Fabricated without Catalysts or Lithography","volume":"5","author":"Deb","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-007-3887-y","article-title":"One-dimensional gallium nitride micro\/nanostructures synthesized by a space-confined growth technique","volume":"87","author":"Xiang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A Mater. Sci. Process."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0248(00)00390-0","article-title":"Formation of GaN nanorods by a sublimation method","volume":"213","author":"Li","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1063\/1.125848","article-title":"Synthesis of GaN-carbon composite nanotubes and GaN nanorods by arc discharge in nitrogen atmosphere","volume":"76","author":"Han","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1431401","article-title":"Pyrolysis approach to the synthesis of gallium nitride nanorods","volume":"80","author":"Han","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"071101","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3694674","article-title":"GaN based nanorods for solid state lighting","volume":"111","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1432","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4095(200010)12:19<1432::AID-ADMA1432>3.0.CO;2-X","article-title":"Straight and Smooth GaN Nanowires","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2791","DOI":"10.1021\/ja0040518","article-title":"Catalytic Growth and Characterization of Gallium Nitride Nanowires","volume":"123","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1021\/ja993713u","article-title":"Laser-Assisted Catalytic Growth of Single Crystal GaN Nanowires","volume":"122","author":"Duan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1021\/nl034422t","article-title":"Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition Route to GaN Nanowires with Triangular Cross Sections","volume":"3","author":"Kuykendall","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-2614(03)00955-2","article-title":"Porous GaN nanowires synthesized using thermal chemical vapor deposition","volume":"376","author":"Bae","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200390097","article-title":"High-Quality Ultra-Fine GaN Nanowires Synthesized via Chemical Vapor Deposition","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1021\/cm0344764","article-title":"Controlled Growth of Long GaN Nanowires from Catalyst Patterns Fabricated by Dip-Pen Nanolithographic Techniques","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1021\/nl060553t","article-title":"The Controlled Growth of GaN Nanowires","volume":"6","author":"Hersee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2248","DOI":"10.1021\/nl0707398","article-title":"Nucleation and Growth of GaN Nanowires on Si(111) Performed by Molecular Beam Epitaxy","volume":"7","author":"Calarco","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1021\/nl034222h","article-title":"Watching GaN Nanowires Grow","volume":"3","author":"Stach","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3731","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1329863","article-title":"Growth of large-scale GaN nanowires and tubes by direct reaction of Ga with NH3","volume":"77","author":"He","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01551","article-title":"Single-crystal gallium nitride nanotubes","volume":"422","author":"Goldberger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200400016","article-title":"Growth of Single-Crystalline Cubic GaN Nanotubes with Rectangular Cross-Sections","volume":"16","author":"Hu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200306684","article-title":"Growth of Single-Crystal Indium Nitride Nanotubes and Nanowires by a Controlled-Carbonitridation Reaction Route","volume":"16","author":"Yin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3912","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1741026","article-title":"Indium-assisted synthesis on GaN nanotubes","volume":"84","author":"Yin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"093120","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2182065","article-title":"Wurtzite-type faceted single-crystalline GaN nanotubes","volume":"88","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.12693\/APhysPolA.90.763","article-title":"On GaN Crystallization by Ammonothermal Method","volume":"90","author":"Dwilinski","year":"1996","journal-title":"Acta Phys. Pol. A"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2215","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006756303640","article-title":"Morphology of GaN in ammonia","volume":"19","author":"Lan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0248(02)02014-6","article-title":"Bulk GaN single crystals: Growth conditions by flux method","volume":"247","author":"Song","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2066","DOI":"10.1002\/pssc.200461557","article-title":"Single crystal growth of gallium nitride in supercritical ammonia","volume":"2","author":"Lan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi C"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat1955","article-title":"A GaN bulk crystal with improved structural quality grown by the ammonothermal method","volume":"6","author":"Hashimoto","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-396X(200101)183:1<81::AID-PSSA81>3.0.CO;2-N","article-title":"Tuning Optical Properties of GaN-Based Nanostructures by Charge Screening","volume":"183","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi A"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTQE.2002.801675","article-title":"Progress in GaN-based quantum dots for optoelectronics applications","volume":"8","author":"Arakawa","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quant. Electron."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2287","DOI":"10.1021\/nl051689e","article-title":"Core\/Multishell Nanowire Heterostructures as Multicolor, High-Efficiency Light-Emitting Diodes","volume":"5","author":"Qian","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat728","article-title":"Single gallium nitride nanowire lasers","volume":"1","author":"Johnson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/13\/5\/333","article-title":"Schottky diodes based on a single GaN nanowire","volume":"13","author":"Kim","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173111","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2115087","article-title":"GaN nanowire lasers with low lasing thresholds","volume":"87","author":"Qian","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1021\/nl015667d","article-title":"Gallium Nitride Nanowire Nanodevices","volume":"2","author":"Huang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183120","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2735928","article-title":"365 nm operation of n-nanowire\/ p-gallium nitride homojunction light emitting diodes","volume":"90","author":"Motayed","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1021\/nl049615a","article-title":"High-Brightness Light Emitting Diodes Using Dislocation-Free Indium Gallium Nitride\/Gallium Nitride Multiquantum-Well Nanorod Arrays","volume":"4","author":"Kim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2767","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200802686","article-title":"Fabrication of a High-Brightness Blue-Light-Emitting Diode Using a ZnO-Nanowire Array Grown on p-GaN Thin Film","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3970","DOI":"10.1021\/nn200521r","article-title":"Epitaxial Growth of InGaN Nanowire Arrays for Light Emitting Diodes","volume":"5","author":"Hahn","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2296","DOI":"10.1002\/pssc.201000989","article-title":"The nanorod approach: GaN NanoLEDs for solid state lighting","volume":"8","author":"Waag","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi C"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4766","DOI":"10.1021\/ja909863a","article-title":"GaN Nanowire Arrays for High-Output Nanogenerators","volume":"132","author":"Huang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475401","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/22\/47\/475401","article-title":"High output nanogenerator based on assembly of GaN nanowires","volume":"22","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00021126","article-title":"Observation of a quantum-confinement effect with GaN nanoparticles synthesized through a new gas reaction route","volume":"71","author":"Cao","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A Mater. Sci. Process."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2309","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1151-2916.1996.tb08977.x","article-title":"Synthesis Routes and Characterization of High-Purity, Single-Phase Gallium Nitride Powders","volume":"79","author":"Davis","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82576","DOI":"10.1039\/C5RA16868F","article-title":"Ammonolytical conversion of microcrystalline gallium antimonide GaSb to nanocrystalline gallium nitride GaN: Thermodynamics vs. topochemistry","volume":"5","author":"Olejniczak","year":"2015","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1179\/174328409X405698","article-title":"Preparation and optical properties of GaN nanocrystalline powders","volume":"25","author":"Jia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3584","DOI":"10.1039\/C3CE42417K","article-title":"The effect of nitridation temperature on the structural, optical and electrical properties of GaN nanoparticles","volume":"16","author":"Gopalakrishnan","year":"2014","journal-title":"CrystEngComm"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0248(99)00522-9","article-title":"Synthesis and structure of nanocrystal-assembled bulk GaN","volume":"209","author":"Chen","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1926","DOI":"10.1126\/science.272.5270.1926","article-title":"A benzene-thermal synthetic route to nanocrystalline GaN","volume":"272","author":"Xie","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2505","DOI":"10.1063\/1.110463","article-title":"Formation of gallium nitride by a novel hot mechanical alloying process","volume":"63","author":"Millet","year":"1993","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2651","DOI":"10.1021\/j150340a015","article-title":"Nitrogen Compounds of Gallium. III","volume":"36","author":"Johnson","year":"1931","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3512","DOI":"10.1021\/ja9738438","article-title":"Detonations of Gallium Azides: A Simple Route to Hexagonal GaN Nanocrystals","volume":"120","author":"Frank","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1021\/cm00051a012","article-title":"Topochemical Control in the Solid-State Conversion of Cyclotrigallazane into Nanocrystalline Gallium Nitride","volume":"7","author":"Hwang","year":"1995","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2671","DOI":"10.1021\/cm9705193","article-title":"Influence of Precursor Route on the Photoluminescence of Bulk Nanocrystalline Gallium Nitride","volume":"9","author":"Coffer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1002\/cvde.200906811","article-title":"Synthesis of Gallium Nitride Nanoparticles by Microwave Plasma-Enhanced CVD","volume":"16","author":"Shimada","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Vapor Depos."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1063\/1.124414","article-title":"Synthesis, structure, and optical properties of colloidal GaN quantum dots","volume":"75","author":"Ahrenkiel","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2425318","article-title":"Preparation, Stability, and Luminescence of Gallium Nitride","volume":"109","author":"Lorenz","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrysgro.2005.04.021","article-title":"Fabrication and photoluminescence of highly crystalline GaN and GaN:Mg nanoparticles","volume":"281","author":"Ogi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106128","DOI":"10.1039\/C5RA23144B","article-title":"Ammonolysis of gallium phosphide GaP to the nanocrystalline wide bandgap semiconductor gallium nitride GaN","volume":"5","author":"Drygas","year":"2015","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41074","DOI":"10.1039\/C6RA05706C","article-title":"Ammonolysis of polycrystalline and amorphized gallium arsenide GaAs to polytype-specific nanopowders of gallium nitride GaN","volume":"6","author":"Radecka","year":"2016","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2037","DOI":"10.1039\/b923920k","article-title":"A soluble salt-assisted facile synthetic route to semiconducting GaN nanoparticles","volume":"12","author":"Yu","year":"2010","journal-title":"CrystEngComm"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11051-014-2619-4","article-title":"Scalable preparation and characterization of GaN nanopowders with high crystallinity by soluble salts-assisted route","volume":"16","author":"Lv","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nanopart. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, Z.F., Lan, Y.C., and Wang, Y. (2013). Aligned Carbon Nanotubes: Physics, Concepts, Fabrication and Devices, Springer-Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-30490-3"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1557\/JMR.2000.0042","article-title":"Synthesis, Raman scattering, and infrared spectra of a new condensed form of GaN nanophase material","volume":"15","author":"Cao","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1021\/cm9901111","article-title":"Ammonothermal Synthesis of Cubic Gallium Nitride","volume":"11","author":"Purdy","year":"1999","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1002\/zaac.19936190224","article-title":"Neubestimmung von Struktur und Eigenschaften isotyper Natriumtetraamidometallate des Aluminiums und Galliums","volume":"619","author":"Jacobs","year":"1993","journal-title":"Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"2284","article-title":"L\u2019amidogallate de potassium KGa(NH2)4 et l\u2019imidogallate KGa(NH)2. L\u2019obtention de l\u2019amidure de gallium Ga(NH2)3","volume":"7","author":"Guarino","year":"1969","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Chim. Fr."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5387","DOI":"10.1002\/ejic.201300958","article-title":"Intermediates in Ammonothermal GaN Crystal Growth under Ammonoacidic Conditions","volume":"2013","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Inorg. Chem."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3390\/inorganics2010029","article-title":"Chemistry of Ammonothermal Synthesis","volume":"2","author":"Richter","year":"2014","journal-title":"Inorganics"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1063\/1.118051","article-title":"Coexistence of wurtzite GaN with zinc blende and rocksalt studied by X-ray power diffraction and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy","volume":"69","author":"Xie","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5392","DOI":"10.1021\/cm060525b","article-title":"Room-Temperature Synthesis of GaN Nanopowder","volume":"18","author":"Pan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4290","DOI":"10.1021\/cm010342j","article-title":"Solvothermal Azide Decomposition Route to GaN Nanoparticles, Nanorods, and Faceted Crystallites","volume":"13","author":"Grocholl","year":"2001","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1039\/C5RE00039D","article-title":"Continuous supercritical route for quantum-confined GaN nanoparticles","volume":"1","author":"Giroire","year":"2016","journal-title":"React. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, X., Thomas, T., Li, K.K., Qi, J., Wang, Y., Chen, X., Zhang, J., Spencer, M.G., Zhao, H., and Zou, Y.K. (2009). Size Reduction and Rare Earth Doping of GaN Powders through Ball Milling. MRS Proc., 1202.","DOI":"10.1557\/PROC-1202-I09-12"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2007.09.120","article-title":"Preparation of GaN powder by mechanochemical reaction between Ga2O3 and Li3N","volume":"464","author":"Kano","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-011-6438-5","article-title":"Synthesis of GaN nanocrystallites by pulsed laser ablation in pure nitrogen background gases","volume":"104","author":"Yoshida","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A Mater. Sci. Process."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"615","article-title":"Synthesis and IR Vibrational Spectrum on GaN Nanocrystalline Prepared by Sol-gel Method","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chin. J. Electron."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4095(200004)12:8<569::AID-ADMA569>3.0.CO;2-K","article-title":"Solution Synthesis of Colloidal Gallium Nitride at Unprecedented Low Temperatures","volume":"12","author":"Manz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1063\/1.122098","article-title":"Observation of confinement-dependent exciton binding energy of GaN quantum dots","volume":"73","author":"Ramvall","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3883","DOI":"10.1063\/1.372429","article-title":"Optical properties of GaN quantum dots","volume":"87","author":"Ramvall","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1142\/S0217984900000744","article-title":"Red emission from GaN nanocrystalline solids","volume":"14","author":"Cao","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mod. Phys. Lett. B"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7203","DOI":"10.1039\/c002496a","article-title":"Theoretical predictions of wurtzite III-nitride nano-materials properties","volume":"12","author":"Guisbiers","year":"2010","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/415797","article-title":"Size and Shape Dependence on Melting Temperature of Gallium Nitride Nanoparticles","volume":"2012","author":"Antoniammal","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nanomater."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4401","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1017966316060","article-title":"Dielectric properties of GaN nanoparticles","volume":"36","author":"Xu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1596382","article-title":"Size-dependent radiative decay time of excitons in GaN\/AlN self-assembled quantum dots","volume":"83","author":"Kako","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7178","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1623330","article-title":"Excitonic properties of strained wurtzite and zinc-blende GaN\/AlxGa1-xN quantum dots","volume":"94","author":"Fonoberov","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3041","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1371961","article-title":"Yellow and green luminescence in a freestanding GaN template","volume":"78","author":"Reshchikov","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-013-8065-9","article-title":"Ga-vacancy-induced room-temperature ferromagnetic and adjusted-band-gap behaviors in GaN nanoparticles","volume":"116","author":"Ren","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A Mater. Sci. Process."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2008.10.057","article-title":"Synthesis of N-deficient GaN nanoparticles and its enhanced dielectric response","volume":"255","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1556-276X-8-342","article-title":"On the phenomenon of large photoluminescence red shift in GaN nanoparticles","volume":"8","author":"Slimane","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanoscale Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201306","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.77.201306","article-title":"Room-temperature ferromagnetism in undoped GaN and CdS semiconductor nanoparticles","volume":"77","author":"Madhu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"061301","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1868059","article-title":"Luminescence properties of defects in GaN","volume":"97","author":"Reshchikov","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2011.2160051","article-title":"Conversion Efficiency Enhancement of GaN\/In0.11Ga0.89N Solar Cells With Nano Patterned Sapphire and Biomimetic Surface Antireflection Process","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"028802","DOI":"10.1088\/1674-1056\/23\/2\/028802","article-title":"Hybrid solar cell based on polythiophene and GaN nanoparticles composite","volume":"23","author":"Qian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chin. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1246\/bcsj.80.1004","article-title":"Photocatalytic Overall Water Splitting on Gallium Nitride Powder","volume":"80","author":"Maeda","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9837","DOI":"10.1039\/c3ce41803k","article-title":"Large-area synthesis of diameter-controllable porous single crystal gallium nitride micro\/nanotube arrays","volume":"15","author":"Jiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"CrystEngComm"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5714","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1407005","article-title":"Fabrication and photoluminescence of ordered GaN nanowire arrays","volume":"115","author":"Zhang","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.200500168","article-title":"Growth of Semiconducting GaN Hollow Spheres and Nanotubes with Very Thin Shells via a Controllable Liquid Gallium-Gas Interface Chemical Reaction","volume":"1","author":"Yin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrysgro.2014.12.037","article-title":"Gallium nitride porous microtubules self-assembled from wurtzite nanorods","volume":"415","author":"Lan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7703","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-013-7590-4","article-title":"Nanoporous gallium nitride square microtubes","volume":"48","author":"Lan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1021\/ja906890v","article-title":"Liesegang Rings Engineered from Charged Nanoparticles","volume":"132","author":"Lagzi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4774","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1759378","article-title":"Nanoparticle ring formation in evaporating micron-size droplets","volume":"84","author":"Govor","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"Nicholls, D. (1979). Inorganic Chemistry in Liquid Ammonia, Elsevier Scientificc Publishing Company."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L129","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-8984\/7\/10\/002","article-title":"Polarized Raman spectra in GaN","volume":"7","author":"Azuhata","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Phys. Condens. Matter"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2353","DOI":"10.1021\/nl2006802","article-title":"Wafer-Level Photocatalytic Water Splitting on GaN Nanowire Arrays Grown by Molecular Beam Epitaxy","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1021\/nn700320y","article-title":"Photocatalysis Using GaN Nanowires","volume":"2","author":"Jung","year":"2008","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4191","DOI":"10.1021\/nl801728d","article-title":"Vertically Aligned p-Type Single-Crystalline GaN Nanorod Arrays on n-Type Si for Heterojunction Photovoltaic Cells","volume":"8","author":"Tang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrysgro.2010.04.052","article-title":"UV photovoltaic cells fabricated utilizing GaN nanorod\/Si heterostructures","volume":"312","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L543","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.44.L543","article-title":"Hydrogen Gas Generation by Splitting Aqueous Water Using n-Type GaN Photoelectrode with Anodic Oxidation","volume":"44","author":"Fujii","year":"2005","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L909","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.44.L909","article-title":"Photoelectrochemical Properties of p-Type GaN in Comparison with n-Type GaN","volume":"44","author":"Fujii","year":"2005","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ono, M., Fujii, K., Ito, T., Iwaki, Y., Hirako, A., Yao, T., and Ohkawa, K. (2007). Photoelectrochemical reaction and H2 generation at zero bias optimized by carrier concentration of n-type GaN. J. Chem. Phys., 126.","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2432116"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25165","DOI":"10.1021\/jp2088324","article-title":"Photoelectrochemical Properties of InxGa1\u2013xN\/GaN Multiquantum Well Structures in Depletion Layers","volume":"115","author":"Fujii","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1678","DOI":"10.1021\/nl3001138","article-title":"Si\/InGaN Core\/Shell Hierarchical Nanowire Arrays and their Photoelectrochemical Properties","volume":"12","author":"Hwang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175401","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/24\/17\/175401","article-title":"High efficiency photoelectrochemical water splitting and hydrogen generation using GaN nanowire photoelectrode","volume":"24","author":"AlOtaibi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015014","DOI":"10.1088\/0268-1242\/27\/1\/015014","article-title":"Improved photoelectrochemical water splitting efficiency of nanoporous GaN photoanode","volume":"27","author":"Ryu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semicond. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2012.12.022","article-title":"Size- and temperature-dependent piezoelectric properties of gallium nitride nanowires","volume":"68","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Scripta Mater."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jssc.2010.07.052","article-title":"Transport properties, specific heat and thermal conductivity of GaN nanocrystalline ceramic","volume":"183","author":"Zaleski","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Solid State Chem."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11798","DOI":"10.1021\/ja0469131","article-title":"Shape Evolution and Self Assembly of Monodisperse PbTe Nanocrystals","volume":"126","author":"Lu","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."}],"container-title":["Micromachines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/7\/9\/121\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:28:59Z","timestamp":1760210939000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/7\/9\/121"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,23]]},"references-count":142,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9]]}},"alternative-id":["mi7090121"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mi7090121","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-666X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-666X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,23]]}}}