{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T05:39:22Z","timestamp":1773207562395,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":153,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,30]],"date-time":"2018-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1543536000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In some circumstances, immersion in virtual environments with the aid of virtual reality (VR) equipment can create feelings of anxiety in users and be experienced as something \u201cfrightening\u201d, \u201coppressive\u201d, \u201calienating\u201d, \u201cdehumanizing\u201d, or \u201cdystopian\u201d. Sometimes (e.g., in exposure therapy or VR gaming), a virtual environment is intended to have such psychological impacts on users; however, such effects can also arise unintentionally due to the environment\u2019s poor architectural design. Designers of virtual environments may employ user-centered design (UCD) to incrementally improve a design and generate a user experience more closely resembling the type desired; however, UCD can yield suboptimal results if an initial design relied on an inappropriate architectural approach. This study developed a framework that can facilitate the purposeful selection of the most appropriate architectural approach by drawing on Norberg-Schulz\u2019s established phenomenological account of real-world architectural modes. By considering the unique possibilities for structuring and experiencing space within virtual environments and reinterpreting Norberg-Schulz\u2019s schemas in the context of virtual environment design, a novel framework was formulated that explicates six fundamental \u201carchitectural paradigms\u201d available to designers of virtual environments. It was shown that the application of this framework could easily be incorporated as an additional step within the UCD process.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti2040080","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,30]],"date-time":"2018-11-30T12:13:17Z","timestamp":1543579997000},"page":"80","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["A Phenomenological Framework of Architectural Paradigms for the User-Centered Design of Virtual Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2889-4424","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew E.","family":"Gladden","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Polish Academy of Sciences, 01-248 Warsaw, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sepp, H.R., and Embree, L. 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