{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T21:42:41Z","timestamp":1776116561053,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":149,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,17]],"date-time":"2020-11-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1605571200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although most readers associate the term virtual reality (VR) with visually appealing entertainment content, this technology also promises to be helpful to disadvantaged people like blind or visually impaired people. While overcoming physical objects\u2019 and spaces\u2019 limitations, virtual objects and environments that can be spatially explored have a particular benefit. To give readers a complete, clear and concise overview of current and past publications on touchable and walkable audio supplemented VR applications for blind and visually impaired users, this survey paper presents a high-level taxonomy to cluster the work done up to now from the perspective of technology, interaction and application. In this respect, we introduced a classification into small-, medium- and large-scale virtual environments to cluster and characterize related work. Our comprehensive table shows that especially grounded force feedback devices for haptic feedback (\u2018small scale\u2019) were strongly researched in different applications scenarios and mainly from an exocentric perspective, but there are also increasingly physically (\u2018medium scale\u2019) or avatar-walkable (\u2018large scale\u2019) egocentric audio-haptic virtual environments. In this respect, novel and widespread interfaces such as smartphones or nowadays consumer grade VR components represent a promising potential for further improvements. Our survey paper provides a database on related work to foster the creation process of new ideas and approaches for both technical and methodological aspects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti4040079","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,17]],"date-time":"2020-11-17T11:02:12Z","timestamp":1605610932000},"page":"79","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Two Decades of Touchable and Walkable Virtual Reality for Blind and Visually Impaired People: A High-Level Taxonomy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6861-711X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julian","family":"Kreimeier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuremberg Institute of Technology, D-90489 Nuremberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6472-0926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Timo","family":"G\u00f6tzelmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuremberg Institute of Technology, D-90489 Nuremberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1080\/07370024.2014.924412","article-title":"Interactivity Improves Usability of Geographic Maps for Visually Impaired People","volume":"30","author":"Brock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. 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