{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T17:10:20Z","timestamp":1777482620039,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,10]],"date-time":"2022-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1641772800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014438","name":"Business Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["930\/31\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["930\/31\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014438","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Virtual reality devices are used for several application domains, such as medicine, entertainment, marketing and training. A handheld controller is the common interaction method for direct object manipulation in virtual reality environments. Using hands would be a straightforward way to directly manipulate objects in the virtual environment if hand-tracking technology were reliable enough. In recent comparison studies, hand-based systems compared unfavorably against the handheld controllers in task completion times and accuracy. In our controlled study, we compare these two interaction techniques with a new hybrid interaction technique which combines the controller tracking with hand gestures for a rigid object manipulation task. The results demonstrate that the hybrid interaction technique is the most preferred because it is intuitive, easy to use, fast, reliable and it provides haptic feedback resembling the real-world object grab. This suggests that there is a trade-off between naturalness, task accuracy and task completion time when using these direct manipulation interaction techniques, and participants prefer to use interaction techniques that provide a balance between these three factors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti6010006","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,10]],"date-time":"2022-01-10T22:03:13Z","timestamp":1641852193000},"page":"6","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Trade-Off between Task Accuracy, Task Completion Time and Naturalness for Direct Object Manipulation in Virtual Reality"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1970-1862","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jari","family":"Kangas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology and Communication Sciences, Tampere University, 33014 Tampere, Finland"}]},{"given":"Sriram Kishore","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology and Communication Sciences, Tampere University, 33014 Tampere, Finland"}]},{"given":"Helena","family":"Mehtonen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Imaging Centre, Department of Radiology, Tampere University Hospital, 33520 Tampere, Finland"}]},{"given":"Jorma","family":"J\u00e4rnstedt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Imaging Centre, Department of Radiology, Tampere University Hospital, 33520 Tampere, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3276-7866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roope","family":"Raisamo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology and Communication Sciences, Tampere University, 33014 Tampere, Finland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1057\/jos.2014.14","article-title":"Virtual reality for medical training: The state-of-the-art","volume":"9","author":"Ruthenbeck","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Simul."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2017.1374981","article-title":"The use of virtual reality simulation to improve technical skill in the undergraduate medical imaging student","volume":"26","author":"Gunn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Interact. Learn. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1111\/iej.13380","article-title":"Virtual reality: An effective tool for teaching root canal anatomy to undergraduate dental students\u2014A preliminary study","volume":"53","author":"Reymus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Endod. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmir.2019.04.005","article-title":"Impact of virtual learning environment on students\u2019 satisfaction, engagement, recall, and retention","volume":"50","author":"Ryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Imaging Radiat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almiyad, M.A., Oakden-Rayner, L., Weerasinghe, A., and Billinghurst, M. (2017). Intelligent augmented reality tutoring for physical tasks with medical professionals. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Proceedings of the International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education, Wuhan, China, 28 June\u20131 July 2017, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-61425-0_38"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sutherland, I.E. (1968, January 9\u201311). A head-mounted three dimensional display. Proceedings of the Fall Joint Computer Conference, Part I, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1476589.1476686"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sz\u00e9kely, G., and Satava, R.M. (1999). Virtual reality in medicine. BMJ Br. Med. J., 319.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.319.7220.1305"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1006\/jvlc.1998.0111","article-title":"Formalizing the design, evaluation, and application of interaction techniques for immersive virtual environments","volume":"10","author":"Bowman","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Vis. Lang. Comput."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caggianese, G., Gallo, L., and Neroni, P. (2018). The Vive controllers vs. Leap motion for interactions in virtual environments: A comparative evaluation. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Interactive Multimedia Systems and Services, Gold Coast, Australia, 20\u201322 June 2018, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-92231-7_3"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gusai, E., Bassano, C., Solari, F., and Chessa, M. (2017). Interaction in an immersive collaborative virtual reality environment: A comparison between leap motion and HTC controllers. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Proceedings of theInternational Conference on Image Analysis and Processing, Catania, Italy, 11\u201315 September 2017, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70742-6_27"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galais, T., Delmas, A., and Alonso, R. (2019, January 10\u201313). Natural interaction in virtual reality: Impact on the cognitive load. Proceedings of the 31st Conference on l\u2019Interaction Homme-Machine: Adjunct, Grenoble, France.","DOI":"10.1145\/3366551.3370342"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Valve (2021, October 21). The Valve Index Controller. Available online: https:\/\/www.valvesoftware.com\/en\/index\/controllers."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navarro, D., and Sundstedt, V. (, January 25\u201327). Evaluating player performance and experience in virtual reality game interactions using the htc vive controller and leap motion sensor. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Human Computer Interaction Theory and Applications, HUCAPP 2019\u2014Part of the 14th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications, VISIGRAPP 2016, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.5220\/0007362401030110"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2513","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2021.3067759","article-title":"Comparing and Combining Virtual Hand and Virtual Ray Pointer Interactions for Data Manipulation in Immersive Analytics","volume":"27","author":"Wagner","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masurovsky, A., Chojecki, P., Runde, D., Lafci, M., Przewozny, D., and Gaebler, M. (2020). Controller-Free Hand Tracking for Grab-and-Place Tasks in Immersive Virtual Reality: Design Elements and Their Empirical Study. Multimodal Technol. Interact., 4.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202010.0431.v1"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khundam, C., Vorachart, V., Preeyawongsakul, P., Hosap, W., and No\u00ebl, F. (2021). A Comparative Study of Interaction Time and Usability of Using Controllers and Hand Tracking in Virtual Reality Training. Informatics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/informatics8030060"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"355","article-title":"Gestural interaction in a virtual environment. In Proceedings of the Stereoscopic Displays and Virtual Reality Systems","volume":"2177","author":"Jacoby","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int. Soc. Opt. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cutler, L.D., Fr\u00f6hlich, B., and Hanrahan, P. (1997, January 27\u201330). Two-handed direct manipulation on the responsive workbench. Proceedings of the 1997 symposium on Interactive 3D Graphics, Providence, RI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/253284.253315"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cameron, C.R., DiValentin, L.W., Manaktala, R., McElhaney, A.C., Nostrand, C.H., Quinlan, O.J., Sharpe, L.N., Slagle, A.C., Wood, C.D., and Zheng, Y.Y. (2011, January 29). Hand tracking and visualization in a virtual reality simulation. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Systems and Information Engineering Design Symposium, Charlottesville, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SIEDS.2011.5876867"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharp, T., Keskin, C., Robertson, D., Taylor, J., Shotton, J., Kim, D., Rhemann, C., Leichter, I., Vinnikov, A., and Wei, Y. (2015, January 18\u201323). Accurate, robust, and flexible real-time hand tracking. Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1145\/2702123.2702179"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1618452.1618514","article-title":"Real-time hand-tracking with a color glove","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poupyrev, I., Billinghurst, M., Weghorst, S., and Ichikawa, T. (1996, January 6\u20138). The go-go interaction technique: Non-linear mapping for direct manipulation in VR. Proceedings of the 9th annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/237091.237102"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.1983.1654471","article-title":"Direct Manipulation: A Step Beyond Programming Languages","volume":"16","author":"Shneiderman","year":"1983","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Ultraleap (2021, October 21). World-Leading Hand Tracking and Haptics. Available online: https:\/\/www.ultraleap.com\/."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Xie, X., Millar, M., Edmonds, M., Gao, F., Zhu, Y., Santos, V.J., Rothrock, B., and Zhu, S.C. (2017, January 24\u201328). A glove-based system for studying hand-object manipulation via joint pose and force sensing. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2017.8206575"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-011-0195-9","article-title":"Immersive manipulation of virtual objects through glove-based hand gesture interaction","volume":"16","author":"Lu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heumer, G., Amor, H.B., Weber, M., and Jung, B. (2007, January 10\u201314). Grasp recognition with uncalibrated data gloves-a comparison of classification methods. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE Virtual Reality Conference, Charlotte, NC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2007.352459"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8659.00252","article-title":"Egocentric object manipulation in virtual environments: Empirical evaluation of interaction techniques","volume":"17","author":"Poupyrev","year":"1998","journal-title":"Comput. Graph. Forum"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Lin, Y., Wang, C., Shen, G., and Wang, X. (2012). A virtual training system using a force feedback haptic device for oral implantology. Transactions on Edutainment VIII, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-31439-1_21"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-2607(00)00089-4","article-title":"The design and testing of a force feedback dental simulator","volume":"64","author":"Thomas","year":"2001","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Programs Biomed."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.16.3.252","article-title":"The benefit of force feedback in surgery: Examination of blunt dissection","volume":"16","author":"Wagner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, P., Goh, W.B., Hutama, W., Fu, C.W., and Liu, X. (2012, January 5\u201310). A handle bar metaphor for virtual object manipulation with mid-air interaction. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Austin, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2207676.2208585"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2018.05.019","article-title":"The Smart Pin: An effective tool for object manipulation in immersive virtual reality environments","volume":"74","author":"Caputo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1162\/PRES_a_00207","article-title":"Design choices and their implications for 3d mid-air manipulation techniques","volume":"23","author":"Bossavit","year":"2014","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendes, D., Sousa, M., Lorena, R., Ferreira, A., and Jorge, J. (2017, January 8\u201310). Using custom transformation axes for mid-air manipulation of 3D virtual objects. Proceedings of the 23rd ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1145\/3139131.3139157"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendes, D., Relvas, F., Ferreira, A., and Jorge, J. (2016, January 2\u20134). The benefits of dof separation in mid-air 3d object manipulation. Proceedings of the 22nd ACM Conference on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1145\/2993369.2993396"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Veit, M., Capobianco, A., and Bechmann, D. (2010, January 22\u201324). Dynamic decomposition and integration of degrees of freedom for 3-d positioning. Proceedings of the 17th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1145\/1889863.1889891"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-019-00378-w","article-title":"Open data exploration in virtual reality: A comparative study of input technology","volume":"24","author":"Reski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"HTC (2021, October 21). The VIVE Controller. Available online: https:\/\/www.vive.com\/eu\/accessory\/controller\/."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S., Park, K., Lee, J., and Kim, K. (2017, January 27\u201329). User study of VR basic controller and data glove as hand gesture inputs in VR games. Proceedings of the 2017 International Symposium on Ubiquitous Virtual Reality (ISUVR), Nara, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISUVR.2017.16"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, D.M., and Stuerzlinger, W. (2019, January 12\u201315). Is the pen mightier than the controller? A comparison of input devices for selection in virtual and augmented reality. Proceedings of the 25th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, Parramatta, NSW, Australia.","DOI":"10.1145\/3359996.3364264"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2020.1809248","article-title":"Evaluation of a Hybrid of Hand Gesture and Controller Inputs in Virtual Reality","volume":"37","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Interact."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Zhang, Z., Xie, X., Zhu, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, Y., and Zhu, S.C. (2019, January 20\u201324). High-fidelity grasping in virtual reality using a glove-based system. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2019.8794230"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2018.10.006","article-title":"A comparative evaluation of direct hand and wand interactions on consumer devices","volume":"77","author":"Figueiredo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/cgf.13390","article-title":"A survey on 3d virtual object manipulation: From the desktop to immersive virtual environments","volume":"38","author":"Mendes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Graph. Forum"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S0901-5027(00)80116-2","article-title":"Computer-assisted three-dimensional surgical planning and simulation: 3D virtual osteotomy","volume":"29","author":"Xia","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/S0895-6111(01)00034-9","article-title":"Virtual reality simulator for osteotomy and fusion involving the musculoskeletal system","volume":"26","author":"Hsieh","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Med. Imaging Graph."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e479","DOI":"10.1097\/GOX.0000000000000447","article-title":"Haptics-assisted virtual planning of bone, soft tissue, and vessels in fibula osteocutaneous free flaps","volume":"3","author":"Olsson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Plast. Reconstr. Surg. Glob. Open"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z., Kiiveri, M., Rantala, J., and Raisamo, R. (2021). Evaluation of haptic virtual reality user interfaces for medical marking on 3D models. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud., 147.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2020.102561"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H., and Choi, Y. (2019). Performance comparison of user interface devices for controlling mining software in virtual reality environments. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9132584"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-008-0223-2","article-title":"Head-mounted display versus desktop for 3D navigation in virtual reality: A user study","volume":"41","author":"Santos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Thompson, F.V.I. (2014). Evaluation of a Commodity VR Interaction Device for Gestural Object Manipulation in a Three Dimensional Work Environment. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Iowa State University]."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fahmi, F., Tanjung, K., Nainggolan, F., Siregar, B., Mubarakah, N., and Zarlis, M. (2020). Comparison study of user experience between virtual reality controllers, leap motion controllers, and senso glove for anatomy learning systems in a virtual reality environment. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng., 851.","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/851\/1\/012024"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcbs.2013.10.001","article-title":"Randomization tests: A new gold standard?","volume":"3","author":"Dugard","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Context. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edgington, E., and Onghena, P. (2007). Randomization Tests, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420011814"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Howell, D.C. (2007). Statistical Methods for Psychology, Thomson Wadsworth. Chapter 18."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.1058","article-title":"Nonparametric permutation tests for functional neuroimaging: A primer with examples","volume":"15","author":"Nichols","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Varjo (2021, October 21). Varjo VR-2 Pro. Available online: https:\/\/varjo.com\/products\/vr-2-pro\/."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Unity (2021, October 21). Unity Real-Time Development Platform. Available online: https:\/\/unity.com\/."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Varjo (2021, October 21). Varjo SDK. Available online: https:\/\/developer.varjo.com\/docs\/native\/introduction-to-varjo-sdk."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Ultraleap (2021, October 21). Ultraleap Motion Controller. Available online: https:\/\/www.ultraleap.com\/datasheets\/Leap_Motion_Controller_Datasheet.pdf."}],"container-title":["Multimodal Technologies and Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/1\/6\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:38:36Z","timestamp":1760362716000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/1\/6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,10]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["mti6010006"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mti6010006","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-4088"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-4088","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,10]]}}}