{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T01:50:56Z","timestamp":1776131456687,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]],"date-time":"2022-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642032000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Grant Agreement No. 765556"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Grant Agreement No. 765556"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ideally, language and reading skills in bilingual children are assessed in both languages spoken in order to avoid misdiagnoses of communication or learning disorders. Due to limited capacity of clinical and educational staff, computerized screenings that allow for automatic evaluation of the children\u2019s performance on reading tasks (accuracy and speed) might pose a useful alternative in clinical and school settings. In this study, a novel web-based screening platform for language and reading assessment is presented. This tool has been preliminarily validated with monolingual Italian, Mandarin\u2013Italian and English\u2013Italian speaking primary school children living and schooled in Italy. Their performances in the screening tasks in Italian and\u2014if bilingual\u2014in their native language were compared to the results of standardized\/conventional reading assessment tests as well as parental and teacher questionnaires. Correlations revealed the tasks that best contributed to the identification of risk for the presence of reading disorders and showed the general feasibility and usefulness of the computerized screening. In a further step, both screening administrators (Examiners) and child participants (Examinees) were invited to participate in usability studies, which revealed general satisfaction and provided suggestions for further improvement of the screening platform. Based on these findings, the potential of the novel web-based screening platform is discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti6010007","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,14]],"date-time":"2022-01-14T03:14:03Z","timestamp":1642130043000},"page":"7","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Remote Dyslexia Screening for Bilingual Children"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2893-4342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maren","family":"Eikerling","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Neuropsychology of Developmental Disorders, Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, Piazza Ateneo Nuovo 1, University Milan-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Matteo","family":"Secco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Via Ponzio 34\/5, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gloria","family":"Marchesi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Brain and Behavioural Sciences, University of Pavia, Via Agostino Bassi, 21, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4470-4187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Teresa","family":"Guasti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Piazza Ateneo Nuovo 1, University Milan-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Vona","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Via Ponzio 34\/5, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Franca","family":"Garzotto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Via Ponzio 34\/5, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4640-306X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Luisa","family":"Lorusso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Neuropsychology of Developmental Disorders, Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Grosjean, F. (1982). Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to Bilingualism, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0355(198921)10:1<25::AID-IMHJ2280100104>3.0.CO;2-R","article-title":"Parental language mixing in bilingual families","volume":"10","author":"Goodz","year":"1989","journal-title":"Infant Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhatia, T.K., and Ritchie, W.C. (2006). The Bilingual Child. The Handbook of Bilingualism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470756997"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2013.799170","article-title":"Understanding the Consequences of Bilingualism for Language Processing and Cognition","volume":"25","author":"Kroll","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/0023-8333.101997010-i1","article-title":"Reading and language learning: Crosslinguistic constraints on second language reading development","volume":"57","author":"Koda","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lang. Learn."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"101","article-title":"Writing System Variation and Its Consequences for Reading and Dyslexia","volume":"22","author":"Daniels","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Stud."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-010-9290-7","article-title":"The intersection of cognitive and sociocultural factors in the development of reading comprehension among immigrant students","volume":"25","author":"Cummins","year":"2012","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.10089","article-title":"Neural systems of second language reading are shaped by native language","volume":"18","author":"Tan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2016.11.018","article-title":"Bilingualism yields language-specific plasticity in left hemisphere\u2019s circuitry for learning to read in young children","volume":"98","author":"Berens","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716407080125","article-title":"Common and distinct cognitive bases for reading in English\u2013Cantonese bilinguals","volume":"29","author":"Luk","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Psycholinguist."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbiero, C., Montico, M., Lonciari, I., Monasta, L., Penge, R., Vio, C., Tressoldi, P.E., Carrozzi, M., De Petris, A., and De Cagno, A.G. (2019). The lost children: The underdiagnosis of dyslexia in Italy. A cross-sectional national study. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0210448"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2534","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02534","article-title":"Cracking the Code: The Impact of Orthographic Transparency and Morphological-Syllabic Complexity on Reading and Developmental Dyslexia","volume":"9","author":"Borleffs","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1044\/2018_LSHSS-DYSLC-18-0049","article-title":"Understanding Dyslexia in the Context of Developmental Language Disorders","volume":"49","author":"Adlof","year":"2018","journal-title":"LSHSS"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"581","article-title":"Dyslexia and the phonological deficit hypothesis: Developing phonological awareness in young English language learners","volume":"1","author":"Costenaro","year":"2012","journal-title":"EL. LE"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1002\/1099-0909(200010\/12)6:4<248::AID-DYS173>3.0.CO;2-O","article-title":"Dyslexia and bilingual children?: Does recent research assist identification?","volume":"6","author":"Durkin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0909(200001\/03)6:1<42::AID-DYS157>3.0.CO;2-0","article-title":"Dyslexia screening measures and bilingualism","volume":"6","author":"Everatt","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564047","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.564047","article-title":"Language-Related Skills in Bilingual Children With Specific Learning Disorders","volume":"11","author":"Riva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-6984.2011.00049.x","article-title":"Evaluation of speech and language assessment approaches with bilingual children","volume":"46","author":"Jin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Gathercole, V.C.M. (2013). 3. What Are the Building Blocks for Language Acquisition? Underlying Principles of Assessment for Language Impairment in the Bilingual Context. Solutions for the Assessment of Bilinguals, Multilingual Matters."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0909(200001\/03)6:1<3::AID-DYS156>3.0.CO;2-E","article-title":"Multilingualism and dyslexia: Challenges for research and practice","volume":"6","author":"Cline","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Bonifacci, P., Tobia, V., Lami, L., and Snowling, M. (2014). ALCE.: Assessment di Lettura e Comprensione in Eta Evolutiva. [ALCE. Assessment for Reading and Comprehension in Development Age], Hogrefe & Huber."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haridas, M., Vasudevan, N., Iyer, A., Menon, R., and Nedungadi, P. (2017, January 29\u201330). Analyzing the Responses of Primary School Children in Dyslexia Screening Tests. Proceedings of the 2017 5th IEEE International Conference on MOOCs, Innovation and Technology in Education (MITE), Bangalore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/MITE.2017.00022"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0909(200001\/03)6:1<13::AID-DYS155>3.0.CO;2-6","article-title":"Issues in the assessment of reading disabilities in L2 children\u2014Beliefs and research evidence","volume":"6","author":"Geva","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"44","article-title":"Teaching Reading to Early Language Learners","volume":"60","author":"Gersten","year":"2003","journal-title":"Educ. Leadersh."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1177\/0735633120905309","article-title":"Identification of Reading Difficulties by a Digital Game-Based Assessment Technology","volume":"58","author":"Hautala","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Educ. Comput. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1177\/1357633X18776095","article-title":"Agreement between telehealth and face-to-face assessment of intellectual ability in children with specific learning disorder","volume":"25","author":"Hodge","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Telemed. Telecare"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.53841\/bpsecp.2011.28.2.33","article-title":"The computerised-based Lucid Rapid Dyslexia Screening for the identification of children at risk of dyslexia: A Singapore study","volume":"28","author":"Brookes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Educ. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Bigagli, A., and Lorusso, M.L. (2014). Predittori Della Lettura in Italiano L2 in Bambini di Madrelingua Cinese. [Predictors of Reading in Italian as L2 in Chinese-Speaking Children], XXIII Congresso Nazionale AIRIPA."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Sartori, G., Job, R., and Tressoldi, P.E. (2007). DDE-2 Batteria per la Valutazione della Dislessia e della Disortografia Evolutiva-2. [Battery for the Evaluation of Developmenta Dyslexia and Dysorthography-2], Giunti O.S."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R., and Rashotte, C.A. (2012). Test of Word Reading Efficiency\u2013Second Edition (TOWRE-2), Pro-Ed."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026744","article-title":"Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review","volume":"138","author":"Lyster","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1575","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-017-9738-0","article-title":"Phonemic awareness development in 2.5- and 3.5-year-old children: An examination of emergent, receptive, knowledge and skills","volume":"30","author":"Kenner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00928","article-title":"Rapid Automatized Naming and Explicit Phonological Processing in Children with Developmental Dyslexia: A Study with Portu-guese-Speaking Children in Brazil","volume":"11","author":"Laurence","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026445","article-title":"Longitudinal predictors of spelling and reading comprehension in Chinese as an L1 and English as an L2 in Hong Kong Chinese children","volume":"104","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2019.1572758","article-title":"A Meta-Analytic Review of Naming-Speed Deficits in Developmental Dyslexia","volume":"23","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Stud. Read."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-120710-100431","article-title":"Rapid automatized naming (RAN) and reading fluency: Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities","volume":"63","author":"Norton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000006","article-title":"Rapid automatized naming and reading performance: A meta-analysis","volume":"107","author":"Reis","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perfetti, C., Pugh, K., and Verhoeven, L. (2019). Developmental Dyslexia in English. Developmental Dyslexia across Languages and Writing Systems, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108553377.020"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.2307\/748202","article-title":"Semantic, Phonologic, and Morphologic Skills in Reading Disabled and Normal Children: Evidence from Perception and Production of Spoken Hebrew","volume":"30","author":"Bentin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Read. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1097\/01.adt.0000311413.75804.60","article-title":"Morphological Awareness Skills of English Language Learners and Children With Dyslexia","volume":"28","author":"Siegel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Top. Lang. Disord."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716412000185","article-title":"Event-related potentials reveal anomalous morphosyntactic processing in developmental dyslexia","volume":"34","author":"Cantiani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Psycholinguist."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02301","article-title":"The Production of Clitic Pronouns: A Study on Bilingual and Monolingual Dyslexic Children","volume":"9","author":"Vender","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1177\/0142723716639501","article-title":"Morphosyntax and logical abilities in Italian poor readers: The problem of SLI under-identification","volume":"36","author":"Arosio","year":"2016","journal-title":"First Lang."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aws356","article-title":"Phonological deficits in specific language impairment and developmental dyslexia: Towards a multidimensional model","volume":"136","author":"Ramus","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219418775111","article-title":"Specific Language Impairment and Reading Disability: Categorical Distinction or Continuum?","volume":"52","author":"Spanoudis","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1044\/1058-0360(2005\/030)","article-title":"English Past Tense Use in Bilingual Children With Language Impairment","volume":"14","author":"Jacobson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Speech Lang. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blom, E., Cornips, L., and Schaeffer, J. (2017). Past tense production in children with SLI and bilingual children: The influence of vocabulary and non-word repetition. Cross-Linguistic Influence in Bilingualism, John Benjamins Publishing Company.","DOI":"10.1075\/sibil.52"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219417714775","article-title":"Difficulties in comprehending affirmative and negative sentences: Evidence from Chinese children with reading difficulties","volume":"51","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Learn Disabil."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.392","article-title":"Cognitive profiles of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia","volume":"16","author":"Chung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219409345018","article-title":"Second language learning difficulties in Chinese children with dyslexia: What are the read-ing-related cognitive skills that contribute to English and Chinese word reading?","volume":"43","author":"Chung","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Sauro, J. (2021, November 07). MeasuringU: Measuring Usability with the System Usability Scale (SUS). Available online: https:\/\/measuringu.com\/sus\/."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chin, J.P., Diehl, V.A., and Norman, L.K. (1988, January 15\u201319). Development of an instrument measuring user satisfaction of the human-computer interface. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/57167.57203"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Wallace, D.F., Norman, K.L., and Plaisant, C. (2021, November 07). The American Voice and Robotics Guardian System: A Case Study in User Interface Usability Evaluation. Available online: http:\/\/www.cs.umd.edu\/hcil\/trs\/88-10\/88-10.pdf."}],"container-title":["Multimodal Technologies and Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/1\/7\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:02:14Z","timestamp":1760364134000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/1\/7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["mti6010007"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mti6010007","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-4088"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-4088","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,13]]}}}