{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T17:22:49Z","timestamp":1776100969830,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]],"date-time":"2022-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650585600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Following the advances in modern head-mounted displays, research exploring the human experience of virtual environments has seen a surge in interest. Researchers have examined how to promote individuals\u2019 sense of presence, i.e., their experience of \u201cbeing\u201d in the VE, as well as to diminish the negative side effects of cybersickness. Studies investigating the relationship between sense of presence and cybersickness have reported heterogeneous results. Authors that found a positive relation have argued that the phenomena have shared cognitive underpinnings. However, recent literature has reported that positive associations can be explained by the confounding factor of immersion. The current study aims to investigate how cybersickness and sense of presence are associated and develop over time. During the experiment, participants were exposed to a virtual roller coaster and presented orally with questions aimed to quantify their perceived sense of presence and cybersickness. The results of the experiment indicate that cybersickness and sense of presence are both modulated by the time spent in the virtual setting. The utilized short measures for sense of presence and cybersickness were found to be reliable alternatives to multi-item questionnaires.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti6050031","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,23]],"date-time":"2022-04-23T21:39:45Z","timestamp":1650749985000},"page":"31","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Temporal Development of Sense of Presence and Cybersickness during an Immersive VR Experience"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Sebastian","family":"Thorp","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, NTNU\u2014Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7034 Trondheim, Norway"}]},{"given":"Alexander","family":"S\u00e6vild Ree","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, NTNU\u2014Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7034 Trondheim, Norway"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4189-7585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simone","family":"Grassini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, NTNU\u2014Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7034 Trondheim, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Social Studies, University of Stavanger, 4021 Stavanger, Norway"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1080\/21520704.2018.1563573","article-title":"The use of virtual reality head-mounted displays within applied sport psychology","volume":"11","author":"Bird","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sport Psychol. Action"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouchard, S., and Rizzo, A. (2019). Applications of Virtual Reality in Clinical Psychology and Clinical Cognitive Neuroscience\u2014An Introduction. Virtual Reality for Psychological and Neurocognitive Interventions, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-9482-3_1"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pastel, S., Chen, C.-H., Petri, K., and Witte, K. (2020). Effects of body visualization on performance in head-mounted display virtual reality. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239226"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00349","article-title":"Questionnaire Measures and Physiological Correlates of Presence: A Systematic Review","volume":"11","author":"Grassini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2021.100429","article-title":"A systematic review of immersive technology applications for medical practice and education-Trends, application areas, recipients, teaching contents, evaluation methods, and performance","volume":"35","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educ. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fong, K.N.K., Tang, Y.M., Sie, K., Yu, A.K.H., Lo, C.C.W., and Ma, Y.W.T. (2021). Task-Specific Virtual Reality Training on Hemiparetic Upper Extremity in Patients with Stroke. Virtual Real., 1\u201312. Available online: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10055-021-00583-6.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-021-00583-6"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grassini, S. (2022). Virtual Reality Assisted Non-Pharmacological Treatments in Chronic Pain Management: A Systematic Review and Quantitative Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19074071"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Grassini, S., and Laumann, K. (2022, January 1\u20135). Evaluating the use of virtual reality in work safety: A literature review. Proceedings of the 30th European Safety and Reliability Conference and the 15th Probabilistic Safety Assessment And Management Conference, Venice, Italy."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.00158","article-title":"Presence and Cybersickness in Virtual Reality Are Negatively Related: A Review","volume":"10","author":"Weech","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1162\/105474698565686","article-title":"Measuring Presence in Virtual Environments: A Presence Questionnaire","volume":"7","author":"Witmer","year":"1998","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.1992.1.2.262","article-title":"Being There: The Subjective Experience of Presence","volume":"1","author":"Heeter","year":"1992","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Ijsselsteijn, W., and Riva, G. (2003). Being there: The experience of presence in mediated environments. Concepts, Effects and Measurements of User Presence in Synthetic Environments, IOS Press."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2132","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02132","article-title":"Can Simulator Sickness Be Avoided? A Review on Temporal Aspects of Simulator Sickness","volume":"9","author":"Strojny","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s10209-017-0581-5","article-title":"Immersive 360\u00b0 video user experience: Impact of different variables in the sense of presence and cybersickness","volume":"18","author":"Narciso","year":"2017","journal-title":"Univers. Access Inf. Soc."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1145\/333329.333344","article-title":"A discussion of cybersickness in virtual environments","volume":"32","author":"Laviola","year":"2000","journal-title":"ACM Sigchi Bull."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grassini, S., and Laumann, K. (2021, January 26\u201329). Immersive visual technologies and human health. Proceedings of the European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics 2021, Siena, Italy.","DOI":"10.1145\/3452853.3452856"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis, S., Nesbitt, K., and Nalivaiko, E. (2014, January 2\u20133). A Systematic Review of Cybersickness. Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Interactive Entertainment, Newcastle, Australia.","DOI":"10.1145\/2677758.2677780"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stanney, K.M., Kennedy, R.S., and Drexler, J.M. (1997, January 1). Cybersickness is Not Simulator Sickness. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1177\/107118139704100292"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2021.02.005","article-title":"Driving simulation sickness and the sense of presence: Correlation and contributing factors","volume":"78","author":"Almallah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2019.11.011","article-title":"A simulation sickness study on a driving simulator equipped with a vibration platform","volume":"68","author":"Lucas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1007\/s10758-020-09489-9","article-title":"Effectiveness of VR Head Mounted Displays in Professional Training: A Systematic Review","volume":"26","author":"Renganayagalu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Technol. Knowl. Learn."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grassini, S., Saghafian, M., Thorp, S., and Laumann, K. (2021, January 24\u201328). User Individual Characteristics and Perceived Usability in Immersive HMD VR: A Mixed Method Explorative Study. Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-80091-8_19"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Witmer, B.G., and Singer, M.F. (1994). Measuring Presence in Virtual Environments, Defense Technical Information Center.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA286183"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Usoh, M., Arthur, K., Whitton, M.C., Bastos, R., Steed, A., Slater, M., and Brooks, F.P. (1999, January 1). Walking > walking-in-place > flying, in virtual environments. Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques\u2014SIGGRAPH, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/311535.311589"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327108ijap0303_3","article-title":"Simulator Sickness Questionnaire: An Enhanced Method for Quantifying Simulator Sickness","volume":"3","author":"Kennedy","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. J. Aviat. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Lin, J.J.W., Duh, H.B.L., Parker, D.E., Abi-Rached, H., and Furness, T.A. (2002, January 24\u201328). Effects of field of view on presence, enjoyment, memory, and simulator sickness in a virtual environment. Proceedings of the IEEE Virtual Reality, Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2018.01.002","article-title":"Effects of display type and motion control on cybersickness in a virtual bike simulator","volume":"51","author":"Mittelstaedt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Seay, A.F., Krum, D.M., Hodges, L., and Ribarsky, W. (2001, January 13\u201317). Simulator Sickness and Presence in a High FOV Virtual Environment. Proceedings of the IEEE Virtual Reality Conference 2001 (VR2001), Nagasaki, Japan."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2012.12.010","article-title":"The relationship between individual characteristics and experienced presence","volume":"29","author":"Ling","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31825da430","article-title":"Stereoscopic Viewing and Reported Perceived Immersion and Symptoms","volume":"89","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-21619-0_61","article-title":"Effects of Presence on Causing Cybersickness in the Elderly within a 3D Virtual Store","volume":"6764","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lecture Notes in Computer Science"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2005.00349.x","article-title":"Characteristic changes in the physiological components of cybersickness","volume":"42","author":"Kim","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2021.1941279","article-title":"Evaluating the effect of multi-sensory stimulations on simulator sickness and sense of presence during HMD-mediated VR experience","volume":"64","author":"Grassini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"675","article-title":"Is Longer Always Better? A Comparison of the Validity of Single-item Versus Multiple-item Measures of Life Satisfaction","volume":"15","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Res. Qual. Life"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2269","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.2269","article-title":"Using electrophysiological measures to evaluate the sense of presence in immersive virtual environments: An event-related potential study","volume":"11","author":"Grassini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chalfoun, P., and Dankoff, J. (2018). Developing actionable biometric insights for production teams. Oxford Scholarship Online, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198794844.003.0017"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1177\/1071181312561354","article-title":"Visually induced motion sickness and presence in videogames: The role of sound","volume":"56","author":"Keshavarz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720811403736","article-title":"Validating an Efficient Method to Quantify Motion Sickness","volume":"53","author":"Keshavarz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Factors: J. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2809","DOI":"10.1007\/s11136-014-0726-4","article-title":"Assessing the validity of single-item life satisfaction measures: Results from three large samples","volume":"23","author":"Cheung","year":"2014","journal-title":"Qual. Life Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melo, M., Sampaio, S., Barbosa, L., Vasconcelos-Raposo, J., and Bessa, M. The Impact of Different Exposure Times to 360\u00b0 Video Experience on the Sense of Presence. Proceedings of the 2016 23\u00b0 Encontro Portugu\u00eas de Computa\u00e7\u00e3o Gr\u00e1fica e Intera\u00e7\u00e3o (EPCGI), Available online: https:\/\/massive.inesctec.pt\/wp-content\/cache\/mendeley-file-cache\/ede5337f-f8b3-35ed-927c-d95d3a9261c5.pdf.","DOI":"10.1109\/EPCGI.2016.7851192"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12520","article-title":"Motivation, engagement, and performance across multiple virtual reality sessions and levels of immersion","volume":"37","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Learn."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327590ijhc1002_3","article-title":"Aftereffects and Sense of Presence in Virtual Environments: Formulation of a Research and Development Agenda","volume":"10","author":"Stanney","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1162\/105474600566952","article-title":"Duration and Exposure to Virtual Environments: Sickness Curves During and Across Sessions","volume":"9","author":"Kennedy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Classen, S., and Owens, A. (2010, December 31). Simulator Sickness among Returning Combat Veterans with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and\/or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Adv. Transp. Stud., Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/288645986_Simulator_sickness_among_returning_combat_veterans_with_mild_traumatic_brain_injury_andor_post-traumatic_stress_disorder."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McHugh, N., Jung, S., Hoermann, S., and Lindeman, R.W. (2019, January 12\u201315). Investigating a Physical Dial as a Measurement Tool for Cybersickness in Virtual Reality. Proceedings of the 25th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, Parramatta, Australia.","DOI":"10.1145\/3359996.3364259"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moss, J., Scisco, J., and Muth, E. (2008, January 22\u201326). Simulator Sickness during Head Mounted Display (HMD) of Real World Video Captured Scenes. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1037\/e578262012-069"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2018.01.001","article-title":"Postural stability and simulator sickness after walking on a treadmill in a virtual environment with a curved display","volume":"52","author":"Sinitski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2010.11.002","article-title":"A visual display enhancing comfort by counteracting airsickness","volume":"32","author":"Feenstra","year":"2011","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"102958","article-title":"Psychometric evaluation of Simulator Sickness Questionnaire and its variants as a measure of cybersickness in consumer virtual environments","volume":"82","author":"Berkman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Hein, D., Mai, C., and Hu\u00dfmann, H. The Usage of Presence Measurements in Research: A Review. Proceedings of the International Society for Presence Research Annual Conference (Presence), Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/325793959_The_Usage_of_Presence_Measurements_in_Research_A_Review."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1162\/105474605323384654","article-title":"The Factor Structure of the Presence Questionnaire","volume":"14","author":"Witmer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Van Baren, J., and IJsselsteijn, W. (2022, February 16). Measuring presence: A Guide to Current Measurement Approaches (OmniPres Project IST 2001-39237). Retrieved from Eindhoven University of Technology, IST FET OMNIPRES Project. Available online: https:\/\/www8.informatik.umu.se\/~jwworth\/presencemeasurement.pdf."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouchard, S., Robillard, G., St-Jacques, J., Dumoulin, S., Patry, M.-J., and Renaud, P. (2005, January 2\u20133). Reliability and validity of a single-item measure of presence in VR. Proceedings of the the 3rd IEEE International Workshop on Haptic, Audio and Visual Environments and Their Applications, Ottawa, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1037\/e705572011-012"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.17.4.376","article-title":"Anxiety Increases the Feeling of Presence in Virtual Reality","volume":"17","author":"Bouchard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2012.00606","article-title":"Robust Correlation Analyses: False Positive and Power Validation Using a New Open Source Matlab Toolbox","volume":"3","author":"Pernet","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/0266476032000148821","article-title":"Inferences Based on a Skipped Correlation Coefficient","volume":"31","author":"Wilcox","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Appl. Stat."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-016-4846-7","article-title":"The virtual reality head-mounted display Oculus Rift induces motion sickness and is sexist in its effects","volume":"235","author":"Munafo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grassini, S., Laumann, K., and Luzi, A. (2021). Association of Individual Factors with Simulator Sickness and Sense of Presence in Virtual Reality Mediated by Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs). Multimodal Technol. Interact., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/mti5030007"}],"container-title":["Multimodal Technologies and Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/5\/31\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:59:03Z","timestamp":1760137143000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/5\/31"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["mti6050031"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mti6050031","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-4088"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-4088","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]]}}}