{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T15:42:09Z","timestamp":1771947729206,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,22]],"date-time":"2022-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658448000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Achieving fluency in arithmetic operations is vital if students are to develop mathematical creativity and critical thinking abilities. Nevertheless, a substantial body of literature has demonstrated that students are struggling to develop such skills, due to the absence of appropriate instructional support or motivation. A proposed solution to tackle this problem is the rapid evolution and widespread integration of educational technology into the modern school system. To be precise, the Learning Management System (LMS) has been found to be particularly useful in the instructional process, especially where matters related to personalised and self-regulated learning are concerned. In the present work, we explored the aforementioned topics in the context of a longitudinal study in which 720 primary education students (4th\u20136th grade), from United Arab Emirates (UAE), utilised an LMS, at least once per week, for one school year (nine months). The findings revealed that the vast majority (97% of the 6th graders, 83% of the 4th graders, and 76% of the 5th graders) demonstrated a positive improvement in their arithmetic fluency development. Moreover, the Multiple Linear Regression analysis revealed that students need to practice deliberately for approximately 68 days (a minimum of 3 min a day) before seeing any substantial improvement in their performance. The study also made an additional contribution by demonstrating how design practice compliance with gamification and Learning Analytics in LMS may lead children to be fluent in simple arithmetic operations. For educators interested in LMS-based intervention, research implications and directions are presented.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti6080061","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T01:42:13Z","timestamp":1658713333000},"page":"61","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Learning Management System Analytics on Arithmetic Fluency Performance: A Skill Development Case in K6 Education"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0845-3285","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Umar Bin","family":"Qushem","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Learning Analytics, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Computing, Faculty of Technology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Athanasios","family":"Christopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Learning Analytics, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mikko-Jussi","family":"Laakso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Learning Analytics, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Computing, Faculty of Technology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2017.05.010","article-title":"The Effect of Individualized Digital Practice at Home on Math Skills\u2013Evidence from a Two-Stage Experiment on Whether and Why It Works","volume":"113","author":"Haelermans","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musti-Rao, S., and Telesman, A.O. (2020). Comparing the Effects of Two Practice Conditions on the Subtraction Fact Fluency of Fifth-Grade Students. J. Behav. Educ., 1\u201319.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10864-020-09417-y"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"144","article-title":"Development of an Instrument to Measure Higher Order Thinking Skills in Senior High School Mathematics Instruction","volume":"7","author":"Tanujaya","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Educ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Anthony, G., and Walshaw, M. (2009). Effective Pedagogy in Mathematics. Educational Practices Series-19, UNESCO International Bureau of Education."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1111\/bjep.12340","article-title":"The Mathematical Flexibility of College Students: The Role of Cognitive and Affective Factors","volume":"90","author":"Shaw","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1007\/s11858-017-0856-6","article-title":"Cultivating Mathematical Skills: From Drill-and-Practice to Deliberate Practice","volume":"49","author":"Lehtinen","year":"2017","journal-title":"ZDM Math. Educ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691616635600","article-title":"Summing Up Hours of Any Type of Practice Versus Identifying Optimal Practice Activities: Commentary on Macnamara, Moreau, & Hambrick","volume":"11","author":"Ericsson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1007\/s10615-018-0671-8","article-title":"The Importance of Feedback in Preparing Social Work Students for Field Education","volume":"47","author":"Kourgiantakis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Soc. Work J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/s10649-017-9788-x","article-title":"Developing Mathematical Fluency: Comparing Exercises and Rich Tasks","volume":"97","author":"Foster","year":"2018","journal-title":"Educ. Stud. Math."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsc.2020.100634","article-title":"The Development of Mathematical Creativity across High School: Increasing, Decreasing, or Both?","volume":"35","author":"Tubb","year":"2020","journal-title":"Think. Ski. Creat."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tate.2020.103096","article-title":"Impact of Children\u2019s Math Self-Concept, Math Self-Efficacy, Math Anxiety, and Teacher Competencies on Math Development","volume":"94","author":"Kaskens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Teach. Teach. Educ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.15388\/infedu.2020.04","article-title":"Long Term Effects on Technology Enhanced Learning: The Use of Weekly Digital Lessons in Mathematics","volume":"19","author":"Kurvinen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inform. Educ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2007.01069.x","article-title":"Cognitive Mechanisms Underlying Achievement Deficits in Children with Mathematical Learning Disability","volume":"78","author":"Geary","year":"2007","journal-title":"Child. Dev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000404","article-title":"Cognitive Predictors of Difficulties in Math and Reading in Pre-Kindergarten Children at High Risk for Learning Disabilities","volume":"112","author":"Barnes","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2020.103704","article-title":"The Relevance of Subtyping Children with Mathematical Learning Disabilities","volume":"104","author":"Huijsmans","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000362","article-title":"Development of Arithmetic Fluency: A Direct Effect of Reading Fluency?","volume":"112","author":"Rinne","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Brown, R.D. (2018). Calculation. Neuroscience of Mathematical Cognitive Development: From Infancy through Emerging Adulthood, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/14794802.2014.962074","article-title":"Improving Multiplication Fact Fluency by Choosing between Competing Answers","volume":"17","author":"Reed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Res. Math. Educ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3567","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-020-09808-y","article-title":"Enhancing Early Numeracy Skills with a Tablet-Based Math Game Intervention: A Study in Tanzania","volume":"68","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Educ. Tech. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2016.10.008","article-title":"Examining the Relationship between Rapid Automatized Naming and Arithmetic Fluency in Chinese Kindergarten Children","volume":"154","author":"Cui","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1080\/1045988X.2015.1040984","article-title":"Effects of a Mathematics Fluency Program on Mathematics Performance of Students with Challenging Behaviors","volume":"60","author":"Whitney","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prev. Sch. Fail. Altern. Educ. Child. Youth"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Russo, J., and Hopkins, S. (2018). Measuring Mental Computational Fluency with Addition: A Novel Approach, Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"19","article-title":"Effects of Digital-Based Math Fluency Interventions on Learners with Math Difficulties: A Review of the Literature","volume":"5","author":"Cozad","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Spec. Educ. Apprenticesh."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103953","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.103953","article-title":"Effectiveness of Digital-Based Interventions for Children with Mathematical Learning Difficulties: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"157","author":"Fagiolini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-018-01192-z","article-title":"Make-A-Dice Test: Assessing the Intersection of Mathematical and Spatial Thinking","volume":"51","author":"Burte","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lamb, M., Csiz\u00e9r, K., Henry, A., and Ryan, S. (2019). Task Motivation. The Palgrave Handbook of Motivation for Language Learning, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-28380-3"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1002\/pits.22334","article-title":"An Analysis of Motivation Strategies Used within the Small-Group Accelerating Mathematics Performance through Practice Strategies (AMPPS-SG) Program","volume":"57","author":"Begeny","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol. Sch."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nichols, E.G., and Kohn, A. (2020). UAE: Brief Review of Education in the United Arabic Emirates. Math. Its Teach. Muslim World, 265\u2013275.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789813146785_0013"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Kamal, K. (2018). Education in the United Arab Emirates. WENR, Available online: https:\/\/wenr.wes.org\/2018\/08\/education-in-the-united-arab-emirates."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.26803\/ijlter.19.7.2","article-title":"The Challenges Faced by Pre-Service Mathematics Teachers during Their Teaching Practice in the UAE: Implications for Teacher Education Programs","volume":"19","author":"Jarrah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Learn. Teach. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1007\/s41959-020-00027-3","article-title":"STEM Leaders and Teachers Views of Integrating Entrepreneurial Practices into STEM Education in High School in the United Arab Emirates","volume":"3","author":"Eltanahy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Entrep. Educ."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Edugain (2021). Edugain UAE: Math Worksheets, Online Tests and Practice. Natl. Curric., Available online: https:\/\/ae.edugain.com\/."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woolsey, M.L., Tennant, L., Kelly, M., and Rashad, F. (2017, January 16\u201318). Emirati Pre-Service Teachers in Mathematics and Science: An Ecobehavioral Assessment. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International Conference of Education, Research and Innovation, Seville, Spain.","DOI":"10.21125\/iceri.2017.0231"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"473","article-title":"Elementary Schools Mathematics and Science Teachers\u2019 Perspectives on Using English as a Medium of Instruction","volume":"8","author":"Jarrah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Online Submiss."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"365","article-title":"Implementation of Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) to Improve the Concept and Practice of Love for Faith-Learning Integration","volume":"13.1","author":"Asbari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Control Autom."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-018-0168-1","article-title":"Personalizing Algebra to Students\u2019 Individual Interests in an Intelligent Tutoring System: Moderators of Impact","volume":"29","author":"Walkington","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Artif. Intell. Educ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qushem, U.B., Christopoulos, A., Oyelere, S.S., Ogata, H., and Laakso, M.-J. (2021). Multimodal Technologies in Precision Education: Providing New Opportunities or Adding More Challenges?. Educ. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci11070338"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1177\/0047239520908838","article-title":"Limits and Virtues of Educational Technology in Elementary School Mathematics","volume":"49","author":"Christopoulos","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Educ. Technol. Syst."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/14794802.2018.1484799","article-title":"Transforming the Mathematical Practices of Learners and Teachers through Digital Technology","volume":"20","author":"Hoyles","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Math. Educ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1964690","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2021.1964690","article-title":"Integration of educational technology during the Covid-19 pandemic: An analysis of teacher and student receptions","volume":"8","author":"Christopoulos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cogent. Educ."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Koponen, T., and Mononen, R. (2010). The 2-Minute Subtraction Fluency Test. Unpublished Test Material, Niilo M\u00e4ki Instituutti."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-017-9659-1","article-title":"ViLLE\u2014Collaborative Education Tool: Designing and Utilizing an Exercise-Based Learning Environment","volume":"23","author":"Laakso","year":"2018","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1002\/bin.191","article-title":"Recommendations for Reporting Multiple-Baseline Designs across Participants","volume":"20","author":"Carr","year":"2005","journal-title":"Behav. Interv."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"11","article-title":"An investigation of school violence and pre-service teachers","volume":"10","author":"Andersen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Educ."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Tukey, J.W. (1977). Exploratory Data Analysis, Addison Wesley."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qushem, U.B., Christopoulos, A., and Laakso, M.-J. (2022, January 23\u201327). The Value Proposition of An Integrated Multimodal Learning Analytics Framework. Proceedings of the 45th Jubilee International ICT Convention on Information, Communication and Electronic Technology (MIPRO), Opatija, Croatia.","DOI":"10.23919\/MIPRO55190.2022.9803728"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.41.10.1040","article-title":"Motivational Processes Affecting Learning","volume":"41","author":"Dweck","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2007.12.001","article-title":"Pursuing Their Own Learning Agenda: How Mastery-Oriented Students Jeopardize Their Class Performance","volume":"33","author":"Senko","year":"2008","journal-title":"Contemp. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Cartwright, K. (2019). \u201cBecause 7 and 8 Are Always in All of Them\u201d: What Do Students Write and Say to Demonstrate Their Mathematical Fluency?, Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2020.104031","article-title":"Effects of a Social Regulation-Based Online Learning Framework on Students\u2019 Learning Achievements and Behaviors in Mathematics","volume":"160","author":"Hwang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184221","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2960312","article-title":"Analyzing Learning Effectiveness and Students\u2019 Perceptions of an Educational Escape Room in a Programming Course in Higher Education","volume":"7","author":"Gordillo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12113","article-title":"Mapping learning and game mechanics for serious games analysis","volume":"46","author":"Arnab","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"3","article-title":"Interventions to Develop a Growth Mindset in a Remedial Math Classroom","volume":"23","author":"Seminelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Math. Mil."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1007\/s10864-020-09388-0","article-title":"Intervening with Multiplication Fact Difficulties: Examining the Utility of the Instructional Hierarchy to Target Interventions","volume":"30","author":"Maki","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Behav. Educ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bittencourt, I.I., Cukurova, M., Muldner, K., Luckin, R., and Mill\u00e1n, E. (2020). Automated Personalized Feedback Improves Learning Gains in An Intelligent Tutoring System. Artificial Intelligence in Education, Springer International Publishing. Lecture Notes in Computer Science.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-52237-7"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4477","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-020-10182-8","article-title":"Design Framework of Adaptive Intelligent Tutoring Systems","volume":"25","year":"2020","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iheduc.2020.100731","article-title":"How Do Students Prepare in the Pre-Class Setting of a Flipped Undergraduate Math Course? A Latent Profile Analysis of Learning Behavior and the Impact of Achievement Goals","volume":"46","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Internet High. Educ."}],"container-title":["Multimodal Technologies and Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/8\/61\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:54:42Z","timestamp":1760140482000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/8\/61"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,22]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["mti6080061"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mti6080061","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-4088"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-4088","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,22]]}}}