{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T04:26:20Z","timestamp":1772252780780,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]],"date-time":"2022-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661472000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie","award":["860410"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["860410"]}]},{"name":"Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie","award":["416228727-SFB 1410"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["416228727-SFB 1410"]}]},{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","award":["860410"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["860410"]}]},{"name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","award":["416228727-SFB 1410"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["416228727-SFB 1410"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Drivers of L3 automated vehicles (AVs) are not required to continuously monitor the AV system. However, they must be prepared to take over when requested. Therefore, it is necessary to design an in-vehicle environment that allows drivers to adapt their levels of preparedness to the likelihood of control transition. This study evaluates ambient in-vehicle lighting that continuously communicates the current level of AV reliability, specifically on how it could influence drivers\u2019 take-over performance and mental workload (MW). We conducted an experiment in a driving simulator with 42 participants who experienced 10 take-over requests (TORs). The experimental group experienced a four-stage ambient light display that communicated the current level of AV reliability, which was not provided to the control group. The experimental group demonstrated better take-over performance, based on lower vehicle jerks. Notably, perceived MW did not differ between the groups, and the EEG indices of MW (frontal theta power, parietal alpha power, Task\u2013Load Index) did not differ between the groups. These findings suggest that communicating the current level of reliability using ambient light might help drivers be better prepared for TORs and perform better without increasing their MW.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti6090073","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,29]],"date-time":"2022-08-29T22:53:42Z","timestamp":1661813622000},"page":"73","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Ambient Light Conveying Reliability Improves Drivers\u2019 Takeover Performance without Increasing Mental Workload"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7618-4852","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikol","family":"Figalov\u00e1","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1975-5716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lewis L.","family":"Chuang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human and Technology, Institute for Media Research, Faculty of Humanities, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"J\u00fcrgen","family":"Pichen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Factors, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Baumann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Factors, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0512-565X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olga","family":"Pollatos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Society of Automotive Engineers (2013). Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems-J3016, Society of Automotive Engineers."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720819829594","article-title":"Getting back into the loop: The perceptual-motor determinants of successful transitions out of automated driving","volume":"61","author":"Mole","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1518\/001872095779049543","article-title":"Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems","volume":"37","author":"Endsley","year":"1995","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2014.06.016","article-title":"Effects of adaptive cruise control and highly automated driving on workload and situation awareness: A review of the empirical evidence","volume":"27","author":"Happee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sadeghian Borojeni, S., Boll, S.C., Heuten, W., B\u00fclthoff, H.H., and Chuang, L. (2018, January 21\u201326). Feel the movement: Real motion influences responses to take-over requests in highly automated vehicles. Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/3173574.3173820"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s10111-018-0525-8","article-title":"The \u201cOut-of-the-Loop\u201d concept in automated driving: Proposed definition, measures and implications","volume":"21","author":"Merat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cogn. Technol. Work"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.2466\/22.25.PMS.117x23z6","article-title":"Driving performance changes of middle-aged experienced taxi drivers due to distraction tasks during unexpected situations","volume":"117","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murphey, Y.L., Milton, R., and Kiliaris, L. (April, January 30). Driver\u2019s style classification using jerk analysis. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE workshop on computational intelligence in vehicles and vehicular systems, Nashville, TN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIVVS.2009.4938719"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2017.04.012","article-title":"Can vehicle longitudinal jerk be used to identify aggressive drivers? An examination using naturalistic driving data","volume":"104","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2022.103824","article-title":"Effects of levels of automation and non-driving related tasks on driver performance and workload: A review of literature and meta-analysis","volume":"104","author":"Shahini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, N., Kim, J., Zhou, F., Pulver, E., Tilbury, D.M., Robert, L.P., Pradhan, A.K., and Yang, X.J. (2020, January 9\u201314). Evaluating effects of cognitive load, takeover request lead time, and traffic density on drivers\u2019 takeover performance in conditionally automated driving. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Leeds, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3409120.3410666"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008X288394","article-title":"Multiple resources and mental workload","volume":"50","author":"Wickens","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faltaous, S., Baumann, M., Schneegass, S., and Chuang, L.L. (2018, January 23\u201325). Design guidelines for reliability communication in autonomous vehicles. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/3239060.3239072"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-8141(02)00194-4","article-title":"Monitoring, complacency, scepticism and eutactic behaviour","volume":"31","author":"Moray","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Ind. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"585","article-title":"The \u2018Problem\u2019 with Automation: Inappropriate Feedback and Interaction, not \u2018Over-Automation\u2019","volume":"327","author":"Norman","year":"1990","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720814547570","article-title":"Trust in automation: Integrating empirical evidence on factors that influence trust","volume":"57","author":"Hoff","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720813482327","article-title":"Improving the driver\u2013automation interaction: An approach using automation uncertainty","volume":"55","author":"Beller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2020.102518","article-title":"Manipulating music to communicate automation reliability in conditionally automated driving: A driving simulator study","volume":"145","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Helldin, T., Falkman, G., Riveiro, M., and Davidsson, S. (2013, January 28\u201330). Presenting system uncertainty in automotive UIs for supporting trust calibration in autonomous driving. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1145\/2516540.2516554"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Ebnali, M., Fathi, R., Lamb, R., Pourfalatoun, S., and Motamedi, S. (2020, January 26). Using Augmented Holographic UIs to Communicate Automation Reliability in Partially Automated Driving. Proceedings of the AutomationXP@ CHI, Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"239","article-title":"The structure of attentional resources","volume":"8","author":"Wickens","year":"1980","journal-title":"Atten. Perform."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Beck, J. (1982). The two modes of processing concept and some implications. Organization and Representation in Perception, Erlbaum."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.124.2.123","article-title":"The neuropsychology of 3D space","volume":"124","author":"Previc","year":"1998","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105959","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2020.105959","article-title":"Evaluating driver eye glance behavior and secondary task engagement while using driving automation systems","volume":"151","author":"Noble","year":"2021","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Yang, Y., G\u00f6tze, M., Laqua, A., Dominioni, G.C., Kawabe, K., and Bengler, K. (2022, June 25). A Method to Improve Driver\u2019s Situation Awareness in Automated Driving. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Yucheng-Yang\/publication\/335992600_A_method_to_improve_driver\u2019s_situation_awareness_in_automated_driving\/links\/5d89f160458515cbd1be5b44\/A-method-to-improve-drivers-situation-awareness-in-automated-driving.pdf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borojeni, S.S., Chuang, L., Heuten, W., and Boll, S. (2016, January 24\u201326). Assisting drivers with ambient take-over requests in highly automated driving. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3003715.3005409"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720819852023","article-title":"Do we really need more stages? Comparing the effects of likelihood alarm systems and binary alarm systems","volume":"62","author":"Zirk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breznitz, S. (2013). Cry Wolf: The Psychology of False Alarms, Psychology Press.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203781203"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1002\/wcs.26","article-title":"Categorical perception","volume":"1","author":"Goldstone","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1518\/001872097778543886","article-title":"Humans and automation: Use, misuse, disuse, abuse","volume":"39","author":"Parasuraman","year":"1997","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.05.363","article-title":"Experimental framework for simulators to study driver cognitive distraction: Brake reaction time in different levels of arousal","volume":"14","author":"Sena","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-its:20080023","article-title":"A method to assess the driver mental workload: The driving activity load index (DALI)","volume":"2","year":"2008","journal-title":"IET Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.663.567","article-title":"Driving fatigue among long distance heavy vehicle drivers in Klang Valley, Malaysia","volume":"663","author":"Khamis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Figalov\u00e1, N., Nasser, M., Jokhio, S., Mbelekani, N.Y., Zang, C., Yang, Y., Peng, C., Liu, Y.C., Muhammed, A.P., and Tabone, W. (2022, June 25). Methodological Framework for Modelling and Empirical Approaches (Deliverable D1. 1 in the H2020 MSCA ITN Project SHAPE-IT). Available online: https:\/\/research.chalmers.se\/en\/publication\/524589."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00057","article-title":"A review of psychophysiological measures to assess cognitive states in real-world driving","volume":"13","author":"Lohani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2017.08.021","article-title":"Effects of mental workload on involuntary attention: A somatosensory ERP study","volume":"106","author":"Mun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045008","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/9\/4\/045008","article-title":"Estimating workload using EEG spectral power and ERPs in the n-back task","volume":"9","author":"Brouwer","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2005.03.007","article-title":"Prediction of subjective states from psychophysiology: A multivariate approach","volume":"71","author":"Fairclough","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1518\/001872098779480578","article-title":"Monitoring working memory load during computer-based tasks with EEG pattern recognition methods","volume":"40","author":"Gevins","year":"1998","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Ren, B., Song, X., and Luo, X. (2015, January 15\u201318). Revealing the \u201cInvisible Gorilla\u201d in Construction: Assessing Mental Workload through Time-frequency Analysis. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC), Oulu, Finland.","DOI":"10.22260\/ISARC2015\/0104"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Figalov\u00e1, N., Delp, A.L., Nick, A., Chuang, L.L., Baumann, M., and Pollatos, O. (2022, June 25). Alpha and Theta Power in Repeated Take-over Requests. Available online: https:\/\/www.neuroergonomicsconference.um.ifi.lmu.de\/topics\/."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2012.10.003","article-title":"Measuring neurophysiological signals in aircraft pilots and car drivers for the assessment of mental workload, fatigue and drowsiness","volume":"44","author":"Borghini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2014.07.014","article-title":"Effects of mental workload and fatigue on the P300, alpha and theta band power during operation of an ERP (P300) brain\u2013computer interface","volume":"102","author":"Wriessnegger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35890","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2851309","article-title":"Understanding driver response patterns to mental workload increase in typical driving scenarios","volume":"6","author":"Liao","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borghini, G., Aric\u00f2, P., Di Flumeri, G., Salinari, S., Colosimo, A., Bonelli, S., Napoletano, L., Ferreira, A., and Babiloni, F. (2015, January 25\u201329). Avionic technology testing by using a cognitive neurometric index: A study with professional helicopter pilots. Proceedings of the 2015 37th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2015.7319804"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720814526617","article-title":"Use of EEG workload indices for diagnostic monitoring of vigilance decrement","volume":"56","author":"Kamzanova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1080\/14639220210159717","article-title":"Neurophysiological measures of cognitive workload during human-computer interaction","volume":"4","author":"Gevins","year":"2003","journal-title":"Theor. Issues Ergon. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1100\/tsw.2009.83","article-title":"Estimating brain load from the EEG","volume":"9","author":"Holm","year":"2009","journal-title":"ScientificWorldJournal"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-0511(95)05116-3","article-title":"Biocybernetic system evaluates indices of operator engagement in automated task","volume":"40","author":"Pope","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holl\u00e4nder, K., and Pfleging, B. (2018, January 25\u201328). Preparing drivers for planned control transitions in automated cars. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Mobile and Ubiquitous Multimedia, Cairo, Egypt.","DOI":"10.1145\/3282894.3282928"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2014.09.005","article-title":"Transition to manual: Driver behaviour when resuming control from a highly automated vehicle","volume":"27","author":"Merat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2018.03.019","article-title":"Transitioning to manual driving requires additional time after automation deactivation","volume":"55","author":"Vogelpohl","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(80)90005-5","article-title":"A feature-integration theory of attention","volume":"12","author":"Treisman","year":"1980","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009","article-title":"EEGLAB: An open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis","volume":"134","author":"Delorme","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1080\/14639220210123806","article-title":"Multiple resources and performance prediction","volume":"3","author":"Wickens","year":"2002","journal-title":"Theor. Issues Ergon. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f6cken, A., Heuten, W., and Boll, S. (2015, January 1\u20133). Supporting lane change decisions with ambient light. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Nottingham, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/2799250.2799259"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meschtscherjakov, A., D\u00f6ttlinger, C., R\u00f6del, C., and Tscheligi, M. (2015, January 1\u20133). ChaseLight: Ambient LED stripes to control driving speed. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Nottingham, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/2799250.2799279"}],"container-title":["Multimodal Technologies and Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/9\/73\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:15:39Z","timestamp":1760141739000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/6\/9\/73"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["mti6090073"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mti6090073","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints202208.0346.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2414-4088"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-4088","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]]}}}