{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T23:34:33Z","timestamp":1776900873759,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]],"date-time":"2024-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1722470400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["NSTC 109-2410-H-003-035-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSTC 109-2410-H-003-035-"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["(NRF-2022M3E8A1077761)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["(NRF-2022M3E8A1077761)"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT)","award":["NSTC 109-2410-H-003-035-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSTC 109-2410-H-003-035-"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT)","award":["(NRF-2022M3E8A1077761)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["(NRF-2022M3E8A1077761)"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MTI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Virtual reality (VR) exercise has been used as a strategy to promote physical health in older adults. Studies have revealed that the effects of exercise interventions vary across age groups. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 12-week semi-immersion VR-based multicomponent exercise program on the functional fitness of young-old (65\u201373 years) and middle-old (74\u201385 years) adults. This study recruited two age groups (young-old adults, n = 49; middle-old adults, n = 37) and randomly assigned them to the experimental (EG) and control (CG) groups. EG participants performed a 75\u201390-min semi-immersion VR exercise routine twice weekly for 12 weeks, whereas CG participants maintained their original lifestyles without any alterations. The Senior Fitness Test was used to measure functional fitness by assessing upper- and lower-limb flexibility and muscle strength, cardiorespiratory fitness, and balance. EG participants exhibited greater improvements than their CG counterparts in certain functional fitness tests, specifically the Back Scratch, Arm Curl, 2-Minute Step, and 8-Foot Up-and-Go Tests. On comparing the age groups, a difference was exclusively noted in the effects of the Chair Sit-and-Reach Test. In the EG, the intervention significantly improved lower-body flexibility in young-old adults but elicited no such improvement in middle-old adults. Semi-immersion VR exercise improved the functional fitness of young-old and middle-old adults in the EG, with superior results in the former. Elucidating the impact of age-specific exercise interventions on functional capacity will help practitioners design age-specific exercise training content that enhances functional fitness in older adults of different ages.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mti8080067","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]],"date-time":"2024-08-01T15:26:53Z","timestamp":1722526013000},"page":"67","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Effects of a 12-Week Semi-Immersion Virtual Reality-Based Multicomponent Intervention on the Functional Capacity of Older Adults in Different Age Groups: A Randomized Control Trial"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Li-Ting","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, Taipei City University of Science & Technology, Taipei 11202, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4401-8275","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yung","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Institute of Sport, Leisure and Hospitality Management, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 10610, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3257-7803","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shao-Hsi","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 10610, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jong-Hwan","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health Convergence Medicine Laboratory, Biomedical Research Institute, Pusan National University Hospital, Busan 49241, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, January 15). Ageing and Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ageing-and-health."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"National Development Council (2023, January 23). Popluation Projections for Republic of China (Taiwan): 2018\u20132065, Available online: https:\/\/www.ndc.gov.tw\/News_Content.aspx?n=114AAE178CD95D4C&sms=DF717169EA26F1A3&s=E1EC042108072B67."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1850","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2010.03068.x","article-title":"Prognostic effect of exercise capacity on mortality in older adults with diabetes mellitus","volume":"58","author":"Nylen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1007\/s10522-010-9287-2","article-title":"Aging, frailty and age-related diseases","volume":"11","author":"Fulop","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biogerontology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2013.02.005","article-title":"The clinical consequences of an ageing world and preventive strategies","volume":"27","author":"Lunenfeld","year":"2013","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1007\/s10522-016-9641-0","article-title":"Physical activity in older age: Perspectives for healthy ageing and frailty","volume":"17","author":"McPhee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biogerontology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeoung, B., and Pyun, D.Y. (2022). Investigating functional fitness of older adults in Korea in the period 2013\u20132018. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-09969-1"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"Effect of a multi-component exercise program on functional mobility, exercise capacity and quality of life in older adults","volume":"12","author":"Haripriya","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ignasiak, Z., Sebastjan, A., S\u0142awi\u0144ska, T., Skrzek, A., Czarny, W., Kr\u00f3l, P., Rzepko, M., Duda-Biernacka, B., Marchewka, A., and Filar-Mierzwa, K. (2020). Functional fitness normative values for elderly polish population. BMC Geriatr., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-020-01787-2"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1123\/japa.7.2.129","article-title":"Development and validation of a functional fitness test for community-residing older adults","volume":"7","author":"Rikli","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Aging Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Rikli, R.E., and Jones, C.J. (2013). Senior Fitness Test Manual, Human Kinetics. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1111\/jocn.12751","article-title":"The effects of tai-chi in conjunction with thera-band resistance exercise on functional fitness and muscle strength among community-based older people","volume":"24","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2016.10.007","article-title":"Thai Yoga improves physical function and well-being in older adults: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"20","author":"Noradechanunt","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, F., Amaro, N., Matos, R., Mendes, D., Monteiro, D., and Morou\u00e7o, P. (2022). The impact of an exercise intervention using low-cost equipment on functional fitness in the community-dwelling older adults: A pilot study. Front. Physiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2022.1039131"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2016.03.006","article-title":"Functional fitness norms for community-dwelling older adults in Hong Kong","volume":"65","author":"Chung","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1123\/japa.12.4.538","article-title":"Effects of multicomponent training on functional fitness in older adults","volume":"12","author":"Toraman","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Aging Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1002\/rnj.64","article-title":"A long-term physical activity training program increases strength and flexibility, and improves balance in older adults","volume":"38","author":"Seco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rehabil. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1093\/her\/cym001","article-title":"Information technology in health promotion","volume":"23","author":"Lintonen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Health Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Z., Lee, J.E., McDonough, D.J., and Albers, C. (2020). Virtual reality exercise as a coping strategy for health and wellness promotion in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9061986"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barsasella, D., Liu, M.F., Malwade, S., Galvin, C.J., Dhar, E., Chang, C.-C., Li, Y.-C.J., and Syed-Abdul, S. (2021). Effects of virtual reality sessions on the quality of life, happiness, and functional fitness among the older people: A randomized controlled trial from Taiwan. Comput. Methods Programs Biomed., 200.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2020.105892"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2015.06.010","article-title":"Individualized feedback-based virtual reality exercise improves older women\u2019s self-perceived health: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"61","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21582440231218515","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440231218515","article-title":"Effectiveness of Virtual Reality Exercise for Functional Fitness in Community-Dwelling Older Adults: A 12-Week Follow-Up Study","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"SAGE Open"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bevilacqua, R., Maranesi, E., Riccardi, G.R., Di Donna, V., Pelliccioni, P., Luzi, R., Lattanzio, F., and Pelliccioni, G. (2019). Non-immersive virtual reality for rehabilitation of the older people: A systematic review into efficacy and effectiveness. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8111882"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Buchner, A., Erdfelder, E., and Faul, F. (2023, January 23). G*Power: R: Statistical Power Analyses for Mac and Windows. Available online: https:\/\/www.psychologie.hhu.de\/arbeitsgruppen\/allgemeine-psychologie-und-arbeitspsychologie\/gpower."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Erbaum Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2017.08.012","article-title":"The effect of the ProBalance Programme on health-related quality of life of community-dwelling older adults: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"74","author":"Gouveia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-198805030-00005","article-title":"PAR-Q, Canadian Home Fitness Test and exercise screening alternatives","volume":"5","author":"Shephard","year":"1988","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2004.04.401","article-title":"Virtual reality applications in manufacturing process simulation","volume":"155","author":"Mujber","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1071\/HE09042","article-title":"Staying alive, staying strong: Pilot evaluation of a once-weekly community-based strength training program for older adults","volume":"20","author":"Bates","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health Promot. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.15561\/26649837.2020.0501","article-title":"Effects of aerobic physical activity to cardio-respiratory fitness of the elderly population: Systematic overview","volume":"24","author":"Bjelica","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pedagog. Phys. Cult. Sports"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1177\/0269215510392390","article-title":"Independent static balance training contributes to increased stability and functional capacity in community-dwelling elderly people: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"25","author":"Jacobson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181a0c95c","article-title":"Exercise and Physical Activity for Older Adults","volume":"41","author":"Proctor","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2018). Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Lin, K.-F., Chu, C.-Y., Fu, L.-L., Liu, J.-C., and Peng, H.-Y. (2013). Senior Fitness Test Manual, Hua-teng.. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Health Promotion Administration (2023, January 23). Body Mass Index Test, Available online: https:\/\/health99.hpa.gov.tw\/OnlinkHealth\/Onlink_BMI.aspx."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203771587"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1519\/00139143-200831010-00002","article-title":"Hand-grip dynamometry predicts future outcomes in aging adults","volume":"31","author":"Bohannon","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2016.04.068","article-title":"Objective measures of the frailty syndrome (hand grip strength and gait speed) and cardiovascular mortality: A systematic review","volume":"215","author":"Chainani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.15537\/smj.2021.42.4.20200674","article-title":"The correlation between fear of falling and upper extremity muscle strength","volume":"42","author":"Yardimci","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi Med. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4013989","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/4013989","article-title":"Effects of Ving Tsun Chinese martial art training on upper extremity muscle strength and eye-hand coordination in community-dwelling middle-aged and older adults: A pilot study","volume":"2016","author":"Fong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, S.-H., Wang, L.-T., Chueh, T.-Y., Hsueh, M.-C., Hung, T.-M., and Wang, Y.-W. (2021). Effectiveness of Facebook Remote Live-Streaming-Guided Exercise for Improving the Functional Fitness of Community-Dwelling Older Adults. Front. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.734812"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, M., Zhou, K., Chen, Y., Zhou, L., Bao, D., and Zhou, J. (2022). Is virtual reality training more effective than traditional physical training on balance and functional mobility in healthy older adults? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.843481"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, N., Soh, K.G., Abdullah, B.B., Tan, H., and Huang, D. (2024). Active video games for improving health-related physical fitness in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1345244"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743843","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/743843","article-title":"Flexibility of older adults aged 55\u201386 years and the influence of physical activity","volume":"2013","author":"Stathokostas","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Aging Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(01)00191-6","article-title":"Age-related changes in the interactive mobility of the hip and knee joints: A geometrical analysis","volume":"15","author":"Nonaka","year":"2002","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1590\/S0100-879X2011007500012","article-title":"The effects of stretching on the flexibility, muscle performance and functionality of institutionalized older women","volume":"44","author":"Gallon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0b013e3181b72149","article-title":"Active stretching improves flexibility, joint torque, and functional mobility in older women","volume":"88","author":"Batista","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/s13690-021-00608-1","article-title":"Is functional fitness performance a useful predictor of risk of falls among community-dwelling older adults?","volume":"79","author":"Ho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1177\/0898264309350076","article-title":"The relationship between obesity, physical activity, and physical function in older adults","volume":"21","author":"Riebe","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Aging Health"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s11556-009-0051-z","article-title":"Effect of age and physical activity level on functional fitness in older adults","volume":"6","author":"Malkoc","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Aging Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"549","article-title":"Age-related decrease in physical activity and functional fitness among elderly men and women","volume":"8","author":"James","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S.-W., Park, H.-Y., Jung, W.-S., and Lim, K. (2022). Effects of Twenty-Four Weeks of Resistance Exercise Training on Body Composition, Bone Mineral Density, Functional Fitness and Isokinetic Muscle Strength in Obese Older Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192114554"}],"container-title":["Multimodal Technologies and Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/8\/8\/67\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:28:30Z","timestamp":1760110110000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2414-4088\/8\/8\/67"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["mti8080067"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mti8080067","relation":{},"ISSN":["2414-4088"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2414-4088","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]]}}}